Artificial cells can have the same dimensions as biological cells. They can enclose and retain a large variety of bioreactants. Artificial cell membranes can have the required permeability characteristics to allow the rapid equilibration of external molecules to be acted on by the enclosed bioreactants. Polymer, protein, protein-lipid, polymer-lipid, lipid or other materials can form artificial cell membranes. It is possible to vary the membrane thickness and permeability characteristics over a wide range. Many different forms of bioreactive artificial cells are available. This article contains only a few examples. This includes its applications in (1) red blood cell substitutes; (2) immobilisation of enzymes, multienzymes with cofactor recycling, cell cultures and other biotechnological applications; (3) hemoperfusion in kidney failure, poisoning, removal of aluminium and iron; (4) use in liver failure; (5) other applications in microencapsulation.
Chang, T. M. S, F.C. MacIntosh and S.G. Mason. "Semipermeable Microcapsules: I. Preparation and Properties;' Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. , 44: 115-128 (1966).
4.
Chang, T.M.S.Artificial Cells. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas Publisher (1972).
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Chang, T.M.S.Nonthrombogenic microcapsules, U.S. patent 3,522,346 (1970); Canadian patent 876,100 (1971). T.M.S. Chang, F.C. MacIntosh and S.G. Mason.Encapsulated hydrophilic compositions and methods of making them, Canadian patent 873,815 ( 1971). T.M.S. Chang.Blood compatible microcapsules- containing detoxicants, U.S. patent 3,725,113 (1973); Canadian patent 982,941 (1976).
6.
Chang, T.M.S. Microencapsulation and ArtificialCells. Clifton, NJ: Humana Press (1984).
7.
Chang, T.M.S. "Application of Artificial Cells in Medicine and Biotechnology," J. Biomaterials Artificial Cells &Artificial Organs, 15:1-12 (1987).
8.
Keipert, P.E. , J. Minkowitz and T.M.S. Chang. "Cross-Linked Stroma-Free Polyhemoglobin as a Potential Blood Substitute," Int. J. Artif. Organs, 5:383 (1982).
9.
Benesch, R., R.E. Benesch, S. Yung and R. Edalji. "Hemoglobin Covalently Bridged Across Polyphosphate Binding Site," Biochem. Biophs. Res. Commun., 63:1123 (1975).
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Keipert, P.E. and T.M.S. Chang. "In vivo Assessment of Pyridoxylated Cross-Linked Polyhemoglobin as an Artificial Red Cell Substitute in Rats," Trans. Amer. Soc Artif. Internal Organs, 29;329 (1983).
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Chang, T.M.S. "The Future Potentials of Blood Substitutes in Transfusion," Transplantation Today, Sept.:40 (1985).
14.
Keipert, P.E. and T.M.S. Chang. "Pyridoxylated Polyhemoglobin as a Blood Substitute for Resuscitation of Lethal Hemorrhagic Shock in Conscious Rats ," Bioat., Med. Dev. and Artif. Organs, 13:1 (1985).
15.
Chang, T.M.S. "Modified Hemoglobin as Red Blood Cell Substitutes," J. Biomaterials, Artificial Cells andArtificial Organs, 15:323-328 (1987).
16.
Moss, G.S., S.A. Gould, L.R. Sehgal, A.L. Rosen and H.L. Sehgal.J Biomaterials, Artificial Cells and Artificial Organs , 15:333-336 (1987).
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Chang, T.M.S. "Semipermeable Aqueous Microcapsules ('Artificial Cells'): with Emphasis on Experiments in an Extracorporeal Shunt System;' Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Internal Organs, 12:13 (1966).
18.
Geyer, R.P. "Perfluorochemicals as Oxygen Transport Vehicles," J. Biomaterials, Artificial Cells andArtificial Organs, 15:329-332 (1987).
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Geyer, R.P., R.G. Monroe and K. Taylor. "Survival of Rats Totally Perfused with a Fluorocarbon-Detergent Preparation," in Organ Perfusion and Preservation. J. C. Norman and F. Folkman , eds. New York:Appleton Century Crofts, 85 (1968).
20.
Abstracts, 3rd International Symposium on Blood Substitutes. In J. Biomaterial, Artificial Cells and Artificial Organs, 15:337-444 (1987).
21.
Chang, T. M. S. and R. Geyer , eds. Proceeding, 3rd International Symposium on Blood Substitutes. In JBiomaterials, Artificial Cells and Artificial Organs (1988).
22.
Chang, T.M.S. "Microcapsule Artificial Kidney: Including Updated Preparative Procedures and Properties," Kidney Int., 10:218 (1976).
23.
Gardner, D.L. , R.D. Falb, B.C. Kim and D.C. Emmerling. "Possible Uremic Detoxification via Oral Ingested Microcapsules," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Intern. Organs, 17:239 (1971).
24.
Kjellstrand, C., H. Borges, C. Pur, D. Gardner and D. Fink. "Ureasezirconium-Phosphate Microcapsules (UZP) Effectively Decreases Nitrogen Accumulation in CFR Patients," abstract in Am. Soc Artif. Intern. Organs, 10:47 (1981).
25.
Shi, Z.Q. and T.M.S. Chang. "Effects of Hemoperfusion on Blood and Brain Levels of Tyrosine and Middle Molecules," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Internal Organs, 28:205 (1982).
26.
Bourget, L. and T.M.S. Chang. "Phenylalanine Ammonia-Lysase Immobilized in Semipermeable Microcapsules for Enzyme Replacement in Phenylketonuria," Fed. of Europ Biochem. Soc. (FEBS Letters), 180:5 ( 1985).
27.
Bourget, L. and T.M.S. Chang. "Phenylalanive Ammonia Lysase Immobilised in Semipermeable Microcapsules for the Depletion of Phenylalanine in Plasma in Phenylketonuric Rat Model," Biochim. Biophys. Acta., 883: 432-438 (1986).
28.
Chang, T.M.S. , Y.T. Yu and J. Grunwald. "Artificial Cells Immobilized Multienzyme Systems and Cofactors," Enzyme Engineering, 16:451 (1982).
29.
Chang, T.M.S. "Artificial Cells with Regenerating Multienzyme Systems Methods," Enzymology, 112:195 (1985).
30.
Gu, K.F. and T.M.S. Chang. "Artificial Cells with Multienzyme Systems for Conversion of Ammonia and Urea into Leucine, Isoleucine and Valine," J. Biomat Artificial Cells and Artificial Organs, 15:297-304 (1987).
31.
Lim, F. and A.M. Sun. "Microencapsulated Islets as Bioartificial Endocrine Pancreas ," Science, 210:908 (1980).
Wong, H. and T.M.S. Chang.Bioartificial Liver: Artificial Cells Microencapsulated Hepatocytes Increases Survival of Liver Failure Rats," Int. J. Artif. Organs, 9:335 (1986).
34.
Chang, T.M.S. "Removal of Endogenous and Exogenous Toxins by a Microencapsulated Absorbent," Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. , 47:1043 (1969).
35.
Chang, T.M.S. and N. Malave. "The Development and First Clinical Use of Semipermeable Microcapsules (Artificial Cells) as a Compact Artificial Kidney," Trans. Amer. Soc Artif. Internal Organs, 16:141 (1970).
36.
Chang, T.M.S.Artificial Kidney, Artificial Liver, and Artificial Cells. New York: Plenum Press (1978).
37.
Sideman, S. and T.M.S. Chang.Hemoperfusion: Artificial Kidney and Liver Support and Detoxification, Part IWashington, DC: Hemisphere (1980).
38.
Bonomini, V. and T.M.S. Chang.Hemoperfusion, Contributions to Nephrology Series, Vol. 29. Basel: S. Karger AG (1982).
39.
Chang, T.M.S. , A. Gonda, J.H. Dirks and N. Malave. "Clinical Evaluation of Chronic Intermittent or Short-Term Hemoperfusions in Patients with Chronic Renal Failure Using Semipermeable Microcapsules (Artificial Cells) Formed from Membrane-Coated Activated Charcoal," Trans. Amer. Sco. Artif. Internal Organs , 17:246 (1971).
40.
Chang, T.M.S. , E. Chirito, P. Barre, C. Cole and M. Hewish. "Clinical Performance Characteristics of a New Combined System for Simultaneous Hemoperfusion-Hemodialysis-Ultrafiltration in Series," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Internal Organs, 21:502 (1975).
41.
Stefoni, S. , L. Coli, G. Feliciangeli, L. Baldrati and V. Bonomini. "Regular Hemoperfusion in Regular Dialysis Treatment: A Long-Term Study," Int. J. Artif. Organs, 3:348 ( 1980).
42.
Chang, T.M.S. , P. Barre and S. Kuruvilla. "Long-Term Reduced Time Hemoperfusion-Hemodialysis Compared to Standard Dialysis: A Preliminary Cross-Over Analysis," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Intern. Organs., 31:572 (1985).
43.
Chang, T.M.S. , E. Chirito, P. Barre, C. Cole, C. Lister and E. Resurreccion. "Long-Term Clinical Assessment of Combined ACAC Hemoperfusion-Ultrafiltration in Uremia," Artif. Organs, 3:127 (1979).
44.
Chang, T M. S., J.F. Coffey, P. Barre, A. Gouda, J.H. Dirks, M. Levy and C. Lister. "Microcapsule Artificial Kidney: Treatment of Patients with Acute Drug Intoxication," Canadian Med Assoc. J., 108:429 (1973).
45.
Chang, T M. S., J.F. Coffey, C. Lister, E. Taroy and A. Stark. "Methaqualone, Methyprylon, and Glutethimide Clearance by the ACAC Microcapsule Artifical Kidney: in vitro and in Patients with Acute Intoxication," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Internal Organs, 19:87 (1973).
46.
Haddad, L. M. and J. F. Winchester, eds. Poisoning and Drug Overdose. Philadelphia :W. B. Saunders Co. (1983).
47.
Chang, T.M.S. , E. Espinosa-Melendez, T.E. Francoeur and N.R. Eade. "Albumin-Collodion Activated Coated Charcoal Hemoperfusion in the Treatment of Severe Theophylline Intoxication in a 3-Year-Old Patient," Pediatrics, 65:811 (1980).
48.
Chang, T.M.S. and P. Barre. "Effect of Desferrioxamine on Removal of Aluminium and Iron by Coated Charcoal Haemoperfusion and Haemodialysis," The Lancet, Nov.:1051 (1983).
49.
Chang, T.M. S., C. Lister and R. Varma. "Kinetics of Coated Charcoal Hemoperfusion in the Removal of Desferral," in Progress in Artificial Organs. K. Atsumi, M. Maekawa and K. Ota, eds. Cleveland: ISAO Press, 602 (1984).
50.
Chang, T.M.S. "Haemoperfusion Over Microencapsulated Adsorbent in a Patient with Hepatic Coma," Lancet, ii:1371-1372 (1972).
51.
Gelfand, M.C. , J.F. Winchester, J.H. Knepshield, S.L. Cohan and G.E. Schreiner. "Biochemical Correlates of Reversal of Hepatic Coma with Coated Charcoal Hemoperfusion," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Intern. Organs, 24:239 (1978).
52.
Williams, R., I. M. Murray-Lyon , eds. Artificial Liver Support. London : Pitman (1975).
53.
Chirito, E., B. Reiter, C. Lister and T.M.S. Chang. "Artificial Liver: The Effect of ACAC Microencapsulated Charcoal Hemoperfusion on Fulminant Hepatic Failure," Artif. Organs, 1(1):76 (1977).
54.
Chang, T.M.S. , C. Lister, E. Chirito, P. O'Keefe and E. Resurreccion. "Effects of Hemoperfusion Rate and Time of Initiation of ACAC Charcoal Hemoperfusion on the Survival of Fulminant Hepatic Failure Rats," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Internal Organs , 24:243 (1978).
55.
Tabata, Y. and T.M.S. Chang. "Comparisons of Six Artifical Liver Support Regimes in Fulminant Hepatic Coma Rats," Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Internal Organs, 26:394 (1980).
56.
Gimson, A.E.S. , S. Braude, R.J. Mellon, J. Canalese and R. Williams. "Earlier Charcoal Haemoperfusion in Fulminant Hepatic Failure," Lancet, Sept. 25:681 (1982).
57.
Lemieux, R.U. "Synthetic Adsorbent for Anti-A or Anti-B Antibodies ," Chem. Soc. Rev., 7:423 (1978).
58.
Chang. T. M. S. "Blood Compatible Coating of Synthetic Immunoadsorbents,"Trans. Amer. Soc. Artif. Internal Organs , 26:546 (1980).
