Ceramic powders from fossil deposits were thoroughly characterized from the material point of view and sintered to produce massive components. The raw material, a mixture of apatite minerals, feldspars, and quartz, seems ideally suitable to obtain a biologically compatible glass ceramic. Preliminary in vitro tests of proliferation and adhesion of MG63 human osteoblast-like cell line on a selected sample are encouraging. Results are correlated with sintering conditions and phase composition: the fossil can be sintered to almost full density at temperatures as low as 900°C and seems to quickly promote cell activation with respect to hydroxylapatite.
Strnad, Z. and Sestak, J. ( 1999). Bio-compatible Ceramics as Mimetic Material for Bone Tissue Substitution, In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Intelligent Processing and Manufacturing of Materials , Honolulu, HI, USA. 10-15 July Vol. 1, pp. 431-436.
2.
Vernè, E., Bosetti, M., Vitale Brovarone , C., Moisescu, C., Lupo, F., Spriano, S. and Cannas, M.Fluoroapatite Glass-ceramic Coatings on Alumina: Structural, Mechanical and Biological Characterization , Biomaterials, 2002: 23: 3395-3403.
3.
Bloemers, F.W. , Blokhuis, T.J., Patka, P., Bakker, F.C., Wippermann, B.W. and Haarman, H.J.Th.M.Autologous Bone Versus Calcium-phosphate Ceramics in Treatment of Experimental Bone Defects, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part B: Appl. Biomater., 2003: 66B: 526-531.
4.
Wright, S. ( 2000). The Bone-graft Market in Europe, In: Davies, J.E. (ed.), Bone Engineering, Toronto, Canada, Em Squared Inc., p. 585.
5.
Cockin, J.Autologous Bone Grafting; Complications at the Donor Site, J. Bone Joint Surg. Br., 1971: 53-B: 153-153.
6.
Boyne, P.J.Autogenous Cancellus Bone and Marrow Transplants, Clin. Orthop. , 1970: 73: 199-209.
7.
Du, R.L. , Chang, J., Ni, S.Y. and Zhai, W.Y.Characterization and In Vitro Bioactivity of Zinc-containing, Bioactive Glass and Glass-ceramics, J. Biomat. Appl., 2006: 20: 341-360.
8.
Kamitakahara, M., Ohtsuki, C., Inada, H., Tanihara, M. and Miyazaki, T.Effect of ZnO Addition on Bioactive CaO-SiO2-P2O5-CaF2 Glass-ceramics Containing Apatite and Wollastonite, Acta Materialia , 2006: 2: 467-471.
9.
Vitale-Brovarone, C., Vernè, E., Robiglio, L., Martinasso, G., Canuto, R.A. and Muzio, G.Biocompatible Glass-Ceramic Materials for Bone Substitution, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Med., 2008: 19: 471-478.
10.
Cheng, K., Weng, W., Wang, H. and Zhang, S. In Vitro Behavior of Osteoblast-like Cells on Fluoridated Hydroxyapatite Coatings , Biomaterials, 2005: 26: 6288-6295.
11.
Appleford, M.R., Oh, S., Cole, J.A., Protivinsky, J. and Ong, J.L.Ultrasound Effect on Osteoblast Precursor Cells in Trabecular Calcium Phosphate Scaffolds, Biomaterials , 2007: 28: 4788-4794.
12.
Hornez, J.-C. , Chai, F., Monchau, F., Blanchemain, N., Descamps, M. and Hildebrand, H.F.Biological and Physico-chemical Assessment of Hydroxyapatite (HA) with Different Porosity, Biomol. Eng. , 2007: 24: 505-509.
13.
Wu, C., Chang, J., Zhai, W., Ni, S. and Wang, J.Porous Akermanite Scaffolds for Bone Tissue Engineering: Preparation, Characterization, and In Vitro Studies, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. B, 2006: 78B: 47-55.
14.
Vats, A., Tolley, N.S., Polak, J.M. and Gough, J.E.Scaffolds and Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering: A Review of Clinical Applications , Clin. Otolaryngol., 2003: 28: 165-172.
15.
Livingston, T. , Ducheyne, P. and Garino, J. In Vivo Evaluation of a Bioactive Scaffold for Bone Tissue Engineering, J. Biomed. Mat. Res., 2002: 62: 1-13.
16.
Ben-Nissan, B.Natural Ceramics: From Coral to Bone and Beyond , Curr. Opin. Solid State Mat. Sci., 2003: 7: 283-288.
17.
Zhang, Y., Wang, Y., Shi, B. and Cheng, X.A Platelet-derived Growth Factor Releasing Chitosan/Coral Composite Scaffold for Periodontal Tissue Engineering, Biomaterials, 2007: 28: 1515-1522.
18.
Arnaud, A., De Pollak, C., Meunier, A., Sedel, L., Damien, C. and Petite, H.Osteogenesis with Corals Increased by BMP and BMC in a Rat Cranioplasty, Biomaterials, 1999: 20: 1909-1918.
19.
Cui, L. , Liu, B., Zhang, W. et al. Repair of Cranial Bone Defects with Adipose Derived Stem Cells and Coral Scaffold in Canine Model, Biomaterials, 2007: 28: 5477-5486.
20.
Rouvillian, J.L., Roudier, M., Bouchon, C. and Catone, Y.Natural Caribbean Coral Used for Surgical Implants, J. Bone Joint Surg. Br., 1995: 77-B: 226-227.
21.
Fricain, J.C. , Alouf, J., Rouais, R. and Rouvillain, J.L.Cytocompatibility Study of Organic Matrix Extracted from Carribean Coral Porites Astroides, Biomaterials , 2002: 23: 673-679.
22.
Bruet, B.J.F. , Qia, H.J., Boyce, M.C. et al. Nanoscale Morphology and Indentation of Individual Nacre Tablets from the Gastropod Mollusc Trochus niloticus, J. Mater. Res., 2005: 20: 2400-2419.
23.
Checa, A.G. , Cartwright, J.H.E. and Willinger , M.-G.The Key Role of the Surface Membrane in Why Gastropod Nacre Grows in Towers, PNAS, 2009: 106: 38-43.
24.
Kaplan, D.L.Mollusc Shell Structures: Novel Design Strategies for Synthetic Materials, Curr. Opin. Solid State Mat. Sci. , 1998: 3: 232-236.
25.
Bahar, H., Yaffe, A. and Binderman, I.The Influence of Nacre Surface and its Modification on Bone Apposition: A Bone Development Model in Rats, J. Periodontol., 2003: 74: 366-371.
26.
Vecchio, K.S. , Zhang, X., Massie, J.B., Wang, M. and Kim, C.W.Conversion of Bulk Seashells to Biocompatible Hydroxyapatite for Bone Implants, Acta Biomaterialia, 2007: 3: 910-918.
27.
Guo, Y. and Zhou, Y.Transformation of Nacre Coatings into Apatite Coatings in Phosphate Buffer Solution at Low Temperature, J. Biom. Mater. Res. A, 2007: 86A: 510-521.
28.
Pereira Mouriès, L., Almeida, M.-J., Milet, C., Berland, S. and Lopez, E.Bioactivity of Nacre Water-soluble Organic Matrix from the Bivalve Mollusk Pinctada maxima in Three Mammalian Cell Types: Fibroblasts, Bone Marrow Stromal Cells and Osteoblasts, Comp. Biochem. Physiol. B, 2002: 132: 217-229.
29.
Trappe, J.A Nomenclature System for Granular Phosphate Rocks According to Depositional Texture, Sediment. Geol., 2001: 145: 135-150.
30.
Guilbert, J.M. and Park Jr, C.F. ( 1986). The Geology of Ore Deposits, USA, W.H. Freeman and Company.
31.
Knudsen, A.C. and Gunter, M.E.Sedimentary Phosphorites: An Example: Phosphoria Formation, Southern Idaho, USA, Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry, 2002: 48: 363-389.
32.
Nemliher, J.G. , Baturin, G.N., Kallaste, T.E. and Murdmaa, I.O.Transformation of Hydroxyapatite of Bone Phosphate from the Ocean Bottom During Fossilization, Lithol. Miner. Resour., 2004: 39: 468-479.
33.
Riquelme, R., Martinod, J., Hérail, G., Darrozes, J. and Charrier, R.A Geomorphological Approach to Determining the Neogene to Recent Tectonic Deformation in the Coastal Cordillera of Northern Chile (Atacama), Tectonophysics, 2003: 361: 255-275.
34.
Walsh, S.A. and Martill, D.M.A Possible Earthquake-triggered Mega-boulder Slide in a Chilean Mio-Pliocene Marine Sequence: Evidence for Rapid Uplift and Bonebed Genesis, J. Geol. Soc., 2006: 163: 697-705.
Linnaeus, C. (1758). Systema Naturæ per Regna tria Naturæ, Secundum Classes, Ordines, Genera, Species, cum Characteribus, Differentiis, Synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio Decima, Reformata .
37.
Sandell, E.B. , Hey, M.H. and McConnell , D.The Composition of Francolite , Min. Mag., 1939: 25: 395-401.
38.
McClellan, G.H.Mineralogy of Carbonate Fluorapatites, J. Geol. Soc., 1908: 137: 675-681.
39.
McClellan, G.H. and Van Kauwenbergh , S.J. (1990). Mineralogy of Sedimentary Apatites, In: Notholt, A.J.G. and Jarvis, I. (eds), Phosphorite Research and Development, London, Geological Society Special Publication, Vol. 52, p. 23.
40.
McClellan, G.H. and Van Kauwenbergh , S.J.Mineralogical and Chemical Variation of Francolites with Geological Time, J. Geol. Soc., 1991: 148: 809-812.
41.
Wopenka, B. and Pasteris, J.D.A Mineralogical Perspective on the Apatite in Bone, Mater. Sci. Eng. C, 2005: 25: 131-143.
42.
Krauskopf, K.B. and Bird, D.K. (1995). Introduction to Geochemistry , New York, USA, McGraw-Hill.
43.
Deer, W.A., Howin, R.A. and Zussman, J. ( 1985). Introduction to the Rock-forming Minerals, 5th edn, Harlow, UK, Longman.
44.
Klug, H.P. and Alexander, L.E. ( 1974). X-ray Diffraction Procedures for Polycrystalline and Amorphous Materials, New York, USA, Wiley.
45.
Labs-Hochstein, J. and MacFadden, B.J.Quantification of Diagenesis in Cenozoic Sharks: Elemental and Mineralogical Changes, Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 2006: 70: 4921-4932.
46.
Agassiz, L. ( 1843), Recherche sur les Poissons Fossiles, Neuchatel, Petitpierre.
47.
Monma, H. ( 1989). Fluorapatite and other Apatites, In: Kanazawa, T. (ed.), Inorganic Phosphate Materials, Japan, Elsevier Science Monographs52 p. 56-78.
48.
Gross, K.A. and Rodriguez-Lorenzo, L.M.Sintered Hydroxyfluorapatites. Part I: Sintering Ability of Precipitated Solid Solution Powders, Biomaterials, 2004: 25: 1375-1384.
49.
Gross, K.A. and Bhadang, K.A.Sintered Hydroxyfluorapatites. Part III: Sintering and Resultant Mechanical Properties of Sintered Blends of Hydroxyapatite and Fluorapatite, Biomaterials, 2004: 25: 1395-1405.
50.
Gu, Y.W., Khor, K.A. and Cheang, P.Bone-like Apatite Layer Formation on Hydroxyapatite Prepared by Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS), Biomaterials, 2004: 25: 4127-4134.
51.
Hulbert, D.M. , Anders, A., Andersson, J., Lavernia, E.J. and Mukherjee , A.K.A Discussion on the Absence of Plasma in Spark Plasma Sintering, Scripta Materialia , 2009: 60: 835-838.
52.
Kingery, W.D., Bowen, H. and Uhlmann, D.R. ( 1976). Introduction to Ceramics, USA, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
53.
Matthews, A. and Nathan, Y.The Decarbonation of Carbonate-fluorapatite (Francolite), American Mineralogist, 1977: 62: 565-573.
54.
Agathopoulos, S., Tulyaganov, D.U., Marques, P.A.A.P., Ferro, M.C., Fernandes, M.H.V. and Correia , R.N.The Fluorapatite - Anorthite System in Biomedicine, Biomaterials, 1993: 24: 1317-1331.
55.
Tairov, R.Z. , Tulyaganov, D.U. and Ismatov, A.A. (1991). Glass Crystal Materials in the Anorthite-Diopside-FAp System, A.R. Tashkent polytechnic Institute, No. 3, March, pp. 21-22.
56.
Hench, L.L.The Story of Bioglass, J. Mater. Sci.: Mater. Med., 2006: 17: 967-978.
