Significance of Alterations in Thyroid Function Test Results in the Critical Care Setting

1. Bermudez F Surks ML Oppenheimer JH. High incidence of decreased serum triiodothyronine concentration in patients with nonthyroidal disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975; 41: 27–40.

2. Kaplan MM Larsen PR Crantz F. Prevalence of abnormal thyroid function test results in patients with acute medical illnesses. Am J Med 1982;72:9–16.

3. Wartofsky L Burman KD. Alterations in thyroid function in patients with systemic illness: the “euthyroid sick syndrome” Endocr Rev 1982; 3:164–217.

4. Cavalieri RR. The effects of nonthyroid disease and drugs on thyroid function tests. Med Clin North Am 1991;75:27–39.

5. Fisher DA. Euthyroid low thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) states in prematures and sick neonates. Pediatr Clin North Am 1990;37:1297–1312.

6. Carter JN Eastman CJ Corcoran JM Lazarus L. Inhibition of conversion of thyroxine to triiodothyronine in patients with severe chronic illness. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1976;5:587–594.

7. Williams G Neuberger J Franklin J Sheppard MC. Thyroid hormone receptor expression in the “sick euthyroid” syndrome. Lancet 1989;2:1477–1481.

8. Kaptein EM Weiner JM Robinson WJ , et al. Relationship of altered thyroid hormone indices to survival in nonthyroidal illnesses. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1982;16:565–574.

9. Slag MF Morley JE Elson MK Crowson TW. Hypothyrox-inemia in critically ill patients as a predictor of high mortality. JAMA 1981;245:43–45.

10. Schatz DC. Serum free thyroxine and thyroxine-binding protein studies in patients with supraventricular tachycardias. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1967;27:165–172.

11. Chopra IJ Teco GN Nguyen AH Solomon DH. In search of an inhibitor of thyroid hormone binding to serum proteins in nonthyroid illnesses. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979; 46: 63–69.

12. Oppenheimer JH Schwanz HL Mariash CN Kaiser FE. Evidence for a factor in the sera of patients with nonthyroidal disease which inhibits iodothyronine binding by solid matrices, serum proteins, and rat hepatocytes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1982;54:757–766.

13. Chopra IJ Solomon DH Hepner GW Morgenstein AA. Mis-leadingly low free thyroxine index and usefulness of reverse triiodothyronine measurement in nonthyroidal illnesses. Ann Intern Med 1979;90:905–912.

14. Sturges ML Weeks I Evans PJ Mpoko CN. An immunochemiluminescent assay for serum free thyroxine. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1987;27:383–393.

15. Bassett F Creswell JE Ma G , et al. Diagnostic value of thyrotropin concentrations in serum as measured by a sensitive immunoradiometric assay. Clin Chem 1986 32: 461–464.

16. Spencer CA. Clinical utility and cost-effectiveness of sensitive thyrotropin assays in ambulatory and hospitalized patients. Mayo Clin Proc 1988;63:1214–1222.

17. Nicoloff JT Spencer CA. The use and misuse of the sensitive thyrotropin assays. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990;71:553–558.

18. Morley JE. Neuroendocrine control of thyrotropin secretion. Endocr Rev 1981;2:396–436.

19. Pang XP Hershman JM Mirell CJ Pekary AE. Impairment of hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function in rats treated with human recombinant tumor necrosis factor-alpha (cachec-tin). Endocrinology 1989;125:76–84.

20. Van der Poll T Romijn JA Wiersinga WM Sauerwein HP. Tumor necrosis factor: a putative mediator of the sick euthyroid syndrome in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1990; 71: 1567–1572.

21. Poth M Tseng YL Wartofsky L. Inhibition of TSH activation of human cultured thyroid cells by tumor necrosis factor: an explanation for decreased thyroid function in systemic illness? Thyroid 1991;1:235–240.

22. Lee HY Suhl J Pekary AE Hershman JM. Secretion of thyrotropin with reduced concanavalin-A-binding activity in patients with severe nonthyroid illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1987;65:942–945.

23. Hamblin PS Dyer SA Mohr VS , et al. Relationship between thyrotropin and thyroxine changes during recovery from severe hypothyroxinemia of critical illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986;62:717–722.

24. Brent GA Hershman JM Braunstein GD. Patients with severe nonthyroidal illness and serum thyrotropin concentrations in the hypothyroid range. Am J Med 1986;81:463–466.

25. Longhini C Portaluppi F Candini G , et al. Serum levels of 3,5,3'-triiodothyronine, 3,3'5'-triiodothyronine, and thyroxine in acute myocardial infarction. Ric Clin Lab 1979; 9: 197–205.

26. Wiersinga WM Lie KI Touber JL. Thyroid hormones in acute myocardial infarction. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1981; 14: 367–371.

27. LoPresti JS Fried JC Spencer CA Nicoloff JT. Unique alterations of thyroid hormone indices in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Ann Intern Med 1989; 110: 970–975.

28. Kaptein EM Feinstein E Nicoloff JT. Serum reverse triiodothyronine and thyroxine kinetics in patients with chronic renal failure. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1983;57:181–189.

29. Pittman CS Suda A Chambers JB McDaniel HG. Abnormalities of thyroid hormone turnover in patients with diabetes mellitus before and after insulin therapy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1979;48:854–860.

30. Naeije R Golstein J Clumeck N Meinhold H. A low T3 syndrome in diabetic ketoacidosis. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1978;8:467–472.

31. Gilani BB MacGillivray MH Vuorhees ML Mills BJ. Thyroid hormone abnormalities at diagnosis of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus in children. J Pediatr 1984;105:218–222.

32. Vaughan GM Mason AD Jr McManus WF Pruitt BA Jr. Alterations of mental status and thyroid hormones after thermal injury. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1985;60:1221–1225.

33. Ziegler MG Morrissey EC Marshall LF. Catecholamine and thyroid hormones in traumatic injury. Crit Care Med 1990; 18:253–258.

34. Becker RA Vaughan GM Goodwin CW Jr , et al. Interactions of thyroid hormones and catecholamines in severely burned patients. Rev Infect Dis 1983;5(suppl 5):S908–S913.

35. Alexander NM Nishimoto M. Protein-linked iodotyrosines in serum after topical application of povidone-iodine (Betadine). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 53:105–108.

36. Balogh D Bauer M Riccabona G. The influence of povidone-iodine treatment on thyroid hormones in severe burns. J Hosp Infect 1985;6(suppl):147–153.

37. Rath T Meissl G. Induction of hypenhyroidism in burn patients treated topically with povidone-iodine. Burns Incl Therm Inj 1988;14:320–322.

38. Benvenga S Morgante L Bartalena L Manna L. Serum thyroid hormones and thyroid hormone binding proteins in patients with completed stroke. Ann Clin Res 1986; 18: 203–207.

39. Hagg E Asplund K Eriksson S Lithner F. Serum thyroid-stimulating hormone in cerebrovascular disease. Acta Med Scand 1986;219:53–58.

40. Chopra IJ Solomon DH Chopra U Wu SY. Pathways of metabolism of thyroid hormones. Recent Prog Horm Res 1978;34:521–567.

41. Vagenakis AG Burger A Portnay GI , et al. Diversion of peripheral thyroxine metabolism from activating to inactivating pathways during complete fasting. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1975;41:191–194.

42. Gardner DF Kaplan MM Stanley CA Utiger RD. Effect of triiodothyronine replacement on the metabolic and pituitary responses to starvation. N Engl J Med 1979 300: 579–584.

43. Burman KD Wartofsky L Dinterman RE , et al. The effect of T3 and reverse T3 administration on muscle catabolism during fasting as measured by 3-methylhistidine excretion. Metabolism 1979;28:805–813.

44. Cahill GS. Role of T3 in fasted man. Life Sci 1981; 28: 1721–1726.

45. Vignati L Finley RJ Haag S Aoki TT. Protein conservation during prolonged fast; a function of triiodothyronine levels. Trans Assoc Am Physicians 1978;16:169–179.

46. Spencer C Eigen A Shen D , et al. Specificity of sensitive assays of thyrotropin (TSH) used to screen for thyroid disease in hospitalized patients. Clin Chem 1987;33:1391–1396.

47. Kaptein EM Spencer CA Kamiel MB Nicoloff JT. Prolonged dopamine administration and thyroid hormone economy in normal and critically ill subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1980;51:387–393.

48. Heyma P Larkins RG Perry-Kenne D , et al. Thyroid hormone levels and protein binding in patients on long term diphenylhydantoin treatment. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1977; 6:369–376.

49. Cavalieri RR Gavin LA Wallace A , et al. Serum thyroxine, free T4, triiodothyronine, and reverse-T3 in diphenylhydantoin treated patients. Metabolism 1979;28:1161–1165.

50. Theodoropoulos T Fang S-L Azizi F , et al. Effect of diphenylhydantoin on hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid function in the rat. Am J Physiol 1980;239:E468–E473.

51. Stahnke N Mertens K Lagenstein I. Thyroid function in patients under anticonvulsant therapy. Acta Endocrinol (Co-penh) 1981;96(suppl 240):6.

52. Larsen PR Atkinson AJ Wellman HN Goldsmith RE. The effect of diphenylhydantoin on thyroxine metabolism in man. J Clin Invest 1970;49:1266–1279.

53. Wartofsky L Ransil BJ Ingbar SH. Inhibition by iodine of the release of thyroxine from the thyroid glands of patients with thyrotoxicosis. J Clin Invest 1970;49:78–86.

54. Vagenakis AG Braverman LE. Adverse effects of iodine on thyroid function. Med Clin North Am 1975;59:1075–1088.

55. Burgi H Wimpfheimer C Burger A , et al. Changes of circulating thyroxine, triiodothyronine and reverse triiodothyronine after radiographic contrast agents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1976;43:1203–1210.

56. Beng CG Wellby ML Symons RG , et al. The effects of iopodate on the serum iodothyronine pattern in normal subjects. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 1980;93:175–178.

57. Balzano S Sau F Bartalena L Ruscazio M. Diagnosis of amio-darone-iodine-induced thyrotoxicosis associated with severe nonthyroid illness. J Endocrinol Invest 1987;10:589–591.

58. Spratt DI Pont A Miller MB McDougall IR. Hyperthyroxinemia in patients with acute psychiatric disorders. Am J Med 1982;73:41–48.

59. Gavin LA Rosenthal M Cavalieri RR. The diagnostic dilemma of hyperthyroxinemia in acute illness. JAMA 1979: 242:251–253.

60. Brent GA Hershman JM. Thyroxine therapy in patients with severe nonthyroidal illnesses and low serum thyroxine concentrations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986;63:1–8.

61. Becker RA Vaughn GM Ziegler MG Seraile LG. Hypermetabolic low triiodothyronine syndrome of burn injury. Crit Care Med 1982;10:870–875.

62. Little JS. Effects of thyroid hormone supplementation on survival after bacterial infection. Endocrinology 1985; 117: 1431–1435.