Developmental coordination disorder affects a relatively large proportion (5%-6%) of the childhood population. Severity of the disorder varies but there is a great need for therapeutic intervention. We propose a method for the training of manual actions in children with developmental coordination disorder. Our solution is achieved by applying haptic virtual reality technology to attack the difficulties that children with developmental coordination disorder evidence. Our results show that children with developmental coordination disorder are able to learn complex motor skills if proper training methods are employed. These findings conflict with reports of impaired motor learning in developmental coordination disorder because of underactivation of cerebellar and parietal networks.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
2.
PolatajkoHJFoxAMMissiunaC. An international consensus on children with developmental coordination disorder. Can J Occup Ther. 1995;62:3–6.
3.
SugdenDA. Leeds Consensus Statement: Developmental Coordination Disorder as a Specific Learning Difficulty. Leeds: DCD-UK/Discovery Centre; 2006.
4.
GroveCRLazarusJ-AC. Paired re-weighting of sensory feedback for maintenance of postural control in children with developmental coordination disorder. Hum Movement Sci. 2007;26:457–476.
5.
InderJMSullivanSJ. Motor and postural response profiles of four children with developmental coordination disorder. Pediatr Phys Ther. 2005;17:18–29.
6.
Mon-WilliamsMWannJPPascalE. Visual-proprioceptive mapping in children with developmental coordination disorder. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1999;41:247–254.
7.
Smits-EngelsmanBCMNiemeijerASGalenGP. Fine motor deficiencies in children diagnosed as DCD based on poor grapho-motor ability. Hum Movement Sci. 2001;20:161–182.
8.
SmythMMasonUC. Direction of response in aiming to visual and proprioceptive targets in children with and without developmental coordination disorder. Hum Movement Sci. 1998;17:515–539.
9.
VolmanMJMGeuzeRH. Relative stability of bimanual and visuomotor rhythmic coordination patterns in children with a developmental coordination disorder. Hum Movement Sci. 1998;17:541–572.
10.
KampsPH. The Source for Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Childhood Disorder Characterized by Poor Coordination and Clumsiness. East Moline, IL: LinguiSystems, Inc; 2005.
11.
GibbsJAppletonJAppletonR. Dyspraxia or developmental coordination disorder?Arch Dis Child. 2007;92:534–539.
12.
GeuzeRHJongmansMSchoemakerMSmits-EngelsmanB. Developmental coordination disorder. Hum Movement Sci. 2001;20:1–5.
13.
AllowayTPTempleKL. A comparison of working memory skills and learning in children with developmental coordination disorder and moderate learning difficulties. Appl Cognitive Psychol. 2007;21:473–487.
14.
BiancottoMSkabarABulgheroniM. Neuromotor deficits in developmental coordination disorder: evidence from a reach-to-grasp task. Res Dev Disabil. 2011;32:1293–1300.
15.
GeuzeRH. Postural control in children with developmental coordination disorder. Neural Plast. 2005;12:183–196.
16.
RasmussenPGillbergC. Natural outcome of ADHD with DCD at age 22 years. J Am Acad Child Psychiatry. 2000;39:1424–1431.
17.
ZwickerJGMissiunaCHarrisSRBoydLA. Brain activation associated with motor skill practice in children with developmental coordination disorder: an fMRI study. Int J Dev Neurosci. 2011;29:145–152.
18.
CantinNPolatajkoHJThachWTJaglalS. Developmental coordination disorder: exploration of a cerebellar hypothesis. Hum Movement Sci. 2007;26:491–509.
19.
IvryRB. Cerebellar involvement in clumsiness and other developmental disorders. Neural Plast. 2003;10:141–153.
20.
ZwickerJGMissiunaCBoydLA. Neural correlates of developmental coordination disorder: a review of hypotheses. J Child Neurol. 2009;24:1273–1281.
21.
KashiwagiMIwakiSNarumiY. Parietal dysfunction in developmental coordination disorder: A functional MRI study. Neuroreport. 2009;20:1319–1324.
22.
CastelnauPAlbaretJMChaixYZanoneP-G. Developmental coordination disorder pertains to a deficit in perceptuo-motor synchronization independent of attentional capacities. Hum Movement Sci. 2007;26:477–490.
23.
MiyaharaMPiekJBarrettN. Accuracy of drawing in a dual-task and resistance-to-distraction study: motor or attention deficit?Hum Movement Sci. 2006;25:100–109.
24.
ColemanRPiekJPLiveseyDJ. A longitudinal study of motor ability and kinaesthetic acuity in young children at risk of developmental coordination disorder. Hum Movement Sci. 2001;20:95–110.
25.
Mon-WilliamsMTresilianJRWannJP. Perceiving limb position in normal and abnormal control: an equilibrium point perspective. Hum Movement Sci. 1999;18:397–419.
26.
SchoemakerMMWeesMBlapperB. Perceptual skills of children with developmental coordination disorder. Hum Movement Sci. 2001;20:111–133.
27.
PrzysuchaEPTaylorMJ. Control of balance and developmental coordination disorder: the role of visual information. Adapt Phys Act Q. 2004;21:19–33.
28.
WannJPMon-WilliamsMRushtonK. Postural control and co-ordination disorders: the swinging room revisited. Hum Movement Sci. 1998;17:491–513.
29.
PlumbMSWilsonADMulroueA. Online corrections in children with and without DCD. Hum Movement Sci. 2008;27:695–704.
30.
WilmutKWannJPBrownJH. Problems in the coupling of eye and hand in the sequential movements of children with developmental coordination disorder. Child Care Health Dev. 2006;32:665–678.
31.
ZoiaSCastielloUBiasonLScabarA. Reaching in children with and without developmental coordination disorder under normal and perturbed vision. Dev Neuropsychol. 2005;27:257–273.
32.
FeldmanAG.Functional tuning of the nervous system with control of movement or maintenance of a steady posture. II, Controllable parameters of the muscle. Biophysics. 1966;11:565–578.
33.
FeldmanAG. Once more on the equilibrium-point hypothesis (lambda model) for motor control. J Motor Behav. 1986;18:17–54.
34.
FeldmanAG. Spatial frames of reference for motor control. In: LatashML, ed. Progress in Motor Control: Bernstein’s Tradition in Movement Studies (V1). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics; 1996:289–313.
35.
FeldmanAGAdamovichSVOstryDJFlanaganJR. The origin of electromyograms: explanation based on the equilibrium point hypothesis. In: WintersJMWooSLY, eds. Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1990:195–213.
36.
HoganN. The mechanics of multi-joint posture and movement. Biol Cybern. 1985;52:315–331.
37.
HoganN. Mechanical impedance of single- and multi-articular systems. In: WintersJMWooSLY, eds. Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1990:149–164.
38.
HoganNBizziEMussa-IvaldiSFlashT. Controlling multijoint motor behavior. Exerc Sport Sci Rev. 1987;15:153–189.
39.
HoganNWintersJM. Principles underlying movement organization: upper limb. In: WintersJMWooSLY, eds. Multiple Muscle Systems: Biomechanics and Movement Organization. New York: Springer-Verlag; 1990:182–194.
40.
Mussa-IvaldiFAHoganNBizziE. Neural and geometric factors subserving arm posture. J Neurosci. 1985;5:2732–2743.
41.
KrebsHIHoganNAisenMLVolpeBT. Robot-aided neurorehabilitation. IEEE T Rehabil Eng. 1998;6:75–87.
42.
KrebsHIVolpeBTAisenMLHoganN. Increasing productivity and quality of care: robotic-aided neurorehabilitation. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2000;37:639–652.
43.
ReinkensmeyerDJKahnLEAverbuchM. Understanding and treating arm movement impairment after chronic brain injury: progress with the ARM Guide. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2000;37:653–662.
44.
BurgarCGLumPSShorPCVan der LoosHFM. Development of robots for rehabilitation therapy: the Palo Alto VA/Stanford experience. J Rehabil Res Dev. 2000;37:663–673.
45.
LumPSBurgarCGShorPC. Evidence for improved muscle activation patterns after retraining of reaching movements with the MIME robotic system in subjects with post-stroke hemiparesis. IEEE T Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2004;12:186–194.
46.
KwakkelGKollenBJKrebsHI. Effects of robot-assisted therapy on upper limb recovery after stroke: A systematic review. Neurorehabil Neural Repair. 2008;22:111–121.
47.
Ben-PaziHIshiharaAKukkeSSangerTD. Increasing viscosity and inertia using a robotically controlled pen improves handwriting in children. J Child Neurol. 2010;25:674–680.
48.
NewellKM. Motor skill acquisition. Annu Rev Psychol. 1991;42:213–237.
49.
de OliveiraRFWannJP. Integration of dynamic information for visuomotor control in young adults with developmental coordination disorder. Exp Brain Res. 2010;205:387–394.
50.
WilsonBNCrawfordSGGreenD. Psychometric Properties of the Revised Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire. Phys Occup Ther Pediatr. 2009;29:182–202.
51.
BinghamGP. Task-specific devices and the perceptual bottleneck. Hum Movement Sci. 1988;7:225–264.
