This study investigated the perceptions of children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) of their ADHD symptoms in terms of the positive illusory bias (PIB), their attributions for their problem behaviors, and their beliefs about whether their problem behaviors and disorder are stigmatizing. Participants were 152 9- to 14-year-old children (86 ADHD). Children with ADHD demonstrated a PIB for their ADHD symptoms; the discrepancy between their self-reports and parent reports was greater than for children without ADHD. They also viewed their self-identified most problematic behavior as more uncontrollable and stigmatizing (i.e., bothersome to others, leading to differential treatment, and embarrassing) than comparison children. Their perception that their problem behaviors and their disorder were stigmatizing was negatively associated with behavioral self-concept and self-esteem. These results suggest that school psychologists should interpret the self-reports of problem behaviors of children with ADHD with caution while being aware of the vulnerability of these children to feelings of stigma.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., text revision). Washington, D.C.: Author.
2.
BagwellC. L.MolinaB. S. G.PelhamW. E.HozaB. (2001). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder and problems in peer relations: Predictions from childhood to adolescence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 40, 1285-1292. doi:10.1097/00004583-200111000-0000810.1097/00004583-200111000-00008
3.
BarkleyR. A. (2006a). Primary symptoms, diagnostic criteria, prevalence and gender differences. In BarkleyR. A. (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed., pp. 76-121). New York, NY: Guilford.
4.
BarkleyR. A. (2006b). Associated cognitive, developmental and health problems. In BarkleyR. A. (Ed.), Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed., pp. 122-183). New York, NY: Guilford.
5.
BarrC. L.WiggK. G.BloomS.SchacharR.TannockR.RobertsW.. . . KennedyJ. L. (2000). Further evidence from haplotype analysis for linkage of the dopamine D4 receptor gene and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 262-267. doi:10.1002/1096-8628(20000612)96:3<262::AID-AJMG5>3.0.CO;2-810.1002/1096-8628(20000612)96:3<262::AID-AJMG5>3.0.CO;2-8
6.
BellL.LongS.GarvanC.BussingR. (2011). Impact of teacher credentials on ADHD stigma perceptions. Psychology in the Schools, 48, 184-197. doi:10.1002/pits.2053610.1002/pits.20536
7.
BlishenB. R.CarrollW. K.MooreC. (1987). The 1981 socioeconomic index for occupations in Canada. Canadian Review of Sociology and Anthropology, 24, 465-488. doi:10.1111/j.1755-618X.1987.tb00639.x10.1111/j.1755-618X.1987.tb00639.x
8.
CollettB. R.GimpelG. A. (2004). Maternal and child attributions in ADHD versus non-ADHD populations. Journal of Attention Disorders, 7(4), 187-196. doi:10.1177/10870547040070040110.1177/108705470400700401
9.
ConnersK. (1997). Conners’ Rating Scales-Revised. North Tonawanda, NY: Multi-Health Systems.
10.
ColemanD.WalkerJ. S.LeeJ.FriesenB. J.SquireP. N. (2009). Children’s beliefs about causes of childhood depression and ADHD: A study of stigmatization. Psychiatric Services, 60, 950-957. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.60.7.95010.1176/appi.ps.60.7.950
11.
CooleyC. (1902). Human nature and the social order. New York, NY: Charles Schribner’s.
12.
CrockerJ. (1999). Social stigma and self-esteem: Situational construction of self-worth. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 35(1), 89-107. doi:10.1006/jesp.1998.136910.1006/jesp.1998.1369
13.
De Los ReyesA.KazdinA. E. (2004). Measuring informant discrepancies in clinical child research. Psychological Assessment, 16, 330-334. doi:10.1037/1040-3590.16.3.33010.1037/1040-3590.16.3.330
14.
DienerM. B.MilichR. (1997). Effects of positive feedback on the social interactions of boys with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder: A test of the self-protective hypothesis. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 26, 256-265. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2603_410.1207/s15374424jccp2603_4
15.
dosReisS.BarksdaleC. L.ShermanA.MaloneyK.CharachA. (2010). Stigmatizing experiences of parents of children with a new diagnosis of ADHD. Psychiatric Services, 61, 811-816. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.61.8.81110.1176/appi.ps.61.8.811
16.
ElikN.WienerJ.CorkumP. (2010). Preservice teachers’ open-minded thinking dispositions, readiness to learn, and attitudes toward learning and behavioural difficulties in students. European Journal of Teacher Education. 33 (2), 127-146. doi:10.1080/0261976090352465810.1080/02619760903524658
17.
EvangelistaN. M.OwensJ. S.GoldenC. M.PelhamW. E. (2008). The positive illusory bias: Do inflated self-perceptions in children generalize to perceptions of others?Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 779-791. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9210-810.1007/s10802-007-9210-8
18.
FrazierT. W.YoungstromE. A.GluttingJ. J.WatkinsM. W. (2007). ADHD and achievement: Meta-analysis of the child, adolescent, and adult literatures and a concomitant study with college students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40(1), 49-65. doi:10.1177/0022219407040001040110.1177/00222194070400010401
19.
GoffmanF. (1963). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
20.
GreeneR. W. (1995). Students with ADHD in school classrooms: Teacher factors related to compatibility, assessment, and intervention. School Psychology Review, 24(1), 81-93.
21.
GrenellM. M.GlassC. R.KatzK. S. (1987). Hyperactive children and peer interaction: Knowledge and performance of social skills. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 15(1), 1-13. doi:10.1007/BF0091646210.1007/BF00916462
22.
HarrisM. J.MilichR.CorbittE. M.HooverD. W.BradyM. (1992). Self-fulfilling effects of stigmatizing information on children’s social interactions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 63, 41-50. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.1.4110.1037/0022-3514.63.1.41
23.
HarterS. (1985). Manual of the Self-Perception Profile for Children. University of Denver.
24.
HarterS. (1990). Causes, correlates, and the functional role of global self-worth: A life-span perspective. In SternbergR.KolligianJ. (Eds.), Competence considered (pp. 67-97 ). New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
25.
HarterS. (1999). The construction of the self: A developmental perspective. New York, NY: Guilford.
26.
HinshawS. P. (2004). Parental mental disorder and childrens functioning: Silence and communication, stigma and resilience. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 400-411. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3302_2210.1207/s15374424jccp3302_22
27.
HinshawS. P. (2005). The stigmatization of mental illness in children and parents: Developmental issues, family concerns, and research needs. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 46, 714-734. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01456.x10.1111/j.1469-7610.2005.01456.x
28.
HozaB.GerdesA. C.HinshawS. P.ArnoldL. E.PelhamW. E.MolinaB. S.G.. . . WigalT. (2004). Self-perceptions of competence in children with ADHD and comparison children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 382-391. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.72.3.38210.1037/0022-006X.72.3.382
29.
HozaB.PelhamW. E.DobbsJ.OwensJ. S.PillowD. R. (2002). Do boys with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder have positive illusory self-concepts?Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 268-278. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.111.2.26810.1037/0021-843X.111.2.268
30.
HozaB.PelhamW. E.WaschbuschD. A.KippH.OwensJ. S. (2001). Academic task persistence of normally achieving ADHD and control boys: Performance, self-evaluations, and attributions. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 271-283. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.69.2.27110.1037/0022-006X.69.2.271
31.
JohnstonC.FineS.WeissM.WeissJ.WeissG.FreemanW. S. (2000). Effects of stimulant medication treatment on mothers and children’s attributions for the behavior of children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology: An Official Publication of the International Society for Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology, 28, 371-382. doi:10.1023/A:100512111027810.1023/A:1005121110278
32.
JohnstonC.LeeC. M. (2005). Children’s attributions for their own versus others’ behaviour: Influence of actor versus observer differences. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26, 314-328. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2005.02.00510.1016/j.appdev.2005.02.005
33.
JohnstonC.LeungD. W. (2001). Effects of medication, behavioral, and combined treatments on parents’ and children’s attributions for the behavior of children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 67-76. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.69.1.6710.1037/0022-006X.69.1.67
34.
JohnstonC.MashE. J. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Review and recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 183-207. doi:10.1023/A:101759203043410.1023/A:1017592030434
35.
JonesE. E.FarinaA.HastorfA. H.MarkusH.MillerD. T.ScottR. A. (1984). Social stigma: The psychology of marked relationships. New York, NY: Freeman.
36.
KaidarI.WienerJ.TannockR. (2003). The attributions of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder for their problem behaviours. Journal of Attention Disorders, 6, 99-109. doi:10.1177/10870547030060030210.1177/108705470300600302
37.
Koro-LjungbergM.BussingR. (2009). The management of courtesy stigma in the lives of families of teenagers with ADHD. Journal of Family Issues, 30, 1175-1200. doi:10.1177/0192513X0933370710.1177/0192513X09333707
38.
MajorB.O’BrienL. T. (2005). The social psychology of stigma. Annual Review of Psychology, 56, 398-421. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.07013710.1146/annurev.psych.56.091103.070137
39.
MartinJ. K.PescosolidoB. A.OlafsdottirS.McLeodJ. D. (2007). The construction of fear: Americans’ preferences for social distance from children and adolescents with mental health problems. Journal of Health and Social Behaviour, 48(1), 50-67. doi:10.1177/00221465070480010410.1177/002214650704800104
40.
MartinussenR.HaydenJ.Hogg-JohnsonS.TannockR. (2005). A meta-analysis of working memory impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 44, 377-384. doi:10.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.7310.1097/01.chi.0000153228.72591.73
41.
MashE.HunsleyJ. (2007). Assessment of child and family disturbance: A developmental systems approach. In MashE.BarkleyR. A. (Eds.), Assessment of childhood disorders (4th ed., pp. 3–52). New York, NY: Guilford.
42.
OhanJ. L.JohnstonC. (2002). Are the performance overestimates given by boys with ADHD self-protective?Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 31, 230-241. doi:10.1207/15374420275360450210.1207/153744202753604502
43.
OhanJ. L.JohnstonC. (1999). Attributions in adolescents medicated for attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Attention Disorders, 3, 49-60. doi:10.1177/10870547990030010410.1177/108705479900300104
44.
OhanJ. L.JohnstonC. (2011). Positive illusions of social competence in girls with ADHD. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 527-539. doi:10.1007/s10802-010-9484-010.1007/s10802-010-9484-0
45.
OwensJ. S.HozaB. (2003). The role of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity in the positive illusory bias. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71, 680-691. doi:10.1037/0022-006X.71.4.68010.1037/0022-006X.71.4.680
46.
OwensJ. S.GoldfineM. E.EvangelistaN. M.HozaB.KaiserN. M. (2007). A critical review of self-perceptions and the positive illusory bias in children with ADHD. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 10, 335-351. doi:10.1007/s10567-007-0027-310.1007/s10567-007-0027-3
47.
PelhamW. E.FabianoG. A.MassettiG. M. (2005). Evidence-based assessment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 34, 449-476. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3403_510.1207/s15374424jccp3403_5
48.
PelhamW. E.HozaB.KippH. L.GnagyE. M.TraneS. T. (1997). Effects of methylphenidate and expectancy on ADHD children’s performance, self-evaluations, persistence, and attributions on a cognitive task. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 5(1), 3-13. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.5.1.310.1037/1064-1297.5.1.3
49.
PelhamW. E.WaschbuschD. A.HozaB.PillowD. R.GnagyE. M. (2001). Effects of methylphenidate and expectancy on performance, self-evaluations, persistence, and attributions on a social task in boys with ADHD. Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology, 9, 425-437. doi:10.1037/1064-1297.9.4.42510.1037/1064-1297.9.4.425
50.
PescosolidoB. A. (2007). Culture, children, and mental health treatment: Special section on the National Stigma Study—Children. Psychiatric Services, 50, 611-612. doi:10.1176/appi.ps.58.5.61110.1176/appi.ps.58.5.611
51.
PoulouM.NorwichB. (2002). Cognitive, emotional, and behavioural response to students with emotional and behavioural difficulties: A model of decision-making. British Educational Research Journal, 28, 111-138. doi:10.1080/0141192012010978410.1080/01411920120109784
52.
RucklidgeJ. J.TannockR. (2001). Psychiatric, psychosocial, and cognitive functioning of female adolescents with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 45, 530-540. doi:10.1097/00004583-200105000-0001210.1097/00004583-200105000-00012
53.
RuschN.AngermeyerM. C.CorriganP. W. (2005). Mental illness stigma: Concepts, consequences, and initiatives to reduce stigma. European Psychiatry, 20, 529-539. doi:10.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.04.00410.1016/j.eurpsy.2005.04.004
54.
SattlerJ. M.DumontR. (2008). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Fourth Edition (WISC-IV): Description. In SattlerJ. M. (Ed.), Assessment of children: Cognitive foundations (5th ed., pp. 265-315). San Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler.
55.
SchwartzerR.WeinerB. (1991). Stigma controllability and coping as predictors of emotions and social support. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 8, 133-140. doi:10.1177/026540759108100710.1177/0265407591081007
56.
TannockR.PurvisK.ShacharR. (1993). Narrative abilities in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and normal peers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 21(1), 103-117. doi:10.1007/BF0091049210.1007/BF00910492
57.
TreutingJ.HinshawS. (2001) Depression and self-esteem in boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Associations with comorbid aggression and explanatory attributional mechanisms. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29(1), 23-39. doi:10.1023/A:100524741222110.1023/A:1005247412221
58.
VallaJ. P.BergeronL.Bidault-RussellM.St. GeorgesM.GaudetN. (1997). Reliability of the Dominic-R: A young child mental health questionnaire combining visual and auditory stimuli. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 717-724. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01698.x10.1111/j.1469-7610.1997.tb01698.x
59.
VallaJ. P.BergeronL.SmollaN. (2000). The Dominic-R: A Pictorial interview for 6- to 11-year old children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39(1), 85-93. doi:10.1097/00004583-200001000-000210.1097/00004583-200001000-0002
60.
WalkerJ.ColemanD.LeeJ.SquireP.FriesenB. J. (2011). Children’s stigmatization of childhood depression and ADHD: Magnitude and demographic variation in a national sample. Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 47, 912-920. doi:10.1097/CHI.0b013e318179961a10.1097/CHI.0b013e318179961a
61.
WechslerD. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
62.
WeinerB. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92, 548-573. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.54810.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548
63.
WeinerB. (1994). Integrating social and personal theories of achievement striving. Review of Educational Research, 64, 557-573. doi:10.2307/117058710.2307/1170587
64.
WeinerB.PerryR. P.MagnussonJ. (1988). An attributional analysis of reactions to stigmas. Journal of Personal and Social Psychology, 55, 738-748. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.55.5.73810.1037/0022-3514.55.5.738
