Although many learning disability types are formally recognized in major classification systems such as DSM-IV-TR and ICD-10, Nonverbal Learning Disorder (NLD) is not despite over 40 years of literature addressing its theoretical and neuropsychological foundation, its major features, and the methods by which to assess and diagnose it. Currently, there is no general agreement regarding the defining features of NLD and their relationship to daily functioning. Presented here is a description of NLD in the context of a model aimed at providing a standard language and framework for describing health and health-related states: the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF). It is proposed that the ICF model can guide clinical thinking, professional practice—including assessment, diagnosis, and treatment—and research with respect to NLD, eventually leading to the inclusion of NLD in formal classification systems.
AchenbachT. M.RescorlaL. A. (2001). Manual for the ASEBA school-age forms & profiles. Burlington: University of Vermont, Research Center for Children, Youth, & Families.
2.
American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities. (2010). Intellectual disability: Definition, classification, and systems of supports. Washington, DC: Author.
3.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statitical manual of mental disorders: Text revision (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
4.
BeeryK. E.BuktenicaN. A.BeeryN. A. (2004). The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration (5th ed.). Minneapolis, MN: NCS Pearson.
5.
BentonA.HamsherK.VarneyN.SpreenO. (1983). Judgement of line orientationContributions to neuropsychological assessment: A clinical manual (pp. 53-64). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
6.
BentonA.SivanA. B.HamsherK.VarneyN. R.SpreenO. (2004). Contributions to neuropsychological assessment: A clinical manual (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
7.
BollT. (1993). Children’s Category Test. San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corporation.
8.
ButcherJ. N.DahlstromW. G.GrahamJ. R.TellegenA.KaemmerB. (1989). Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory–2. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
9.
ButlerM.RetzlaffP.VanderploegR. (1991). Neuropsychological test usage. Professional Psychology–Research and Practice, 22, 510-512.
10.
CaseyJ. E.RourkeB. P. (1991). Construct validation of the nonverbal learning disabilities syndrome and model. In RourkeB. P. (Ed.), Neuropsychological validation of learning disability subtypes (pp. 271-292). New York, NY: Guilford.
11.
CaseyJ. E.RourkeB. P.PicardE. M. (1991). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Age differences in neuropsychological, academic, and socioemotional functioning. Development and psychopathology, 3, 329-345.
12.
CaseyJ. E.StrangJ. D. (1994). The neuropsychology of nonverbal learning disabilities: A practical guide for the clinical practitioner. In KoziolL. F.StoutC. E. (Eds.), The neuropsychology of mental disorders: A practical guide (pp. 187-201). Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.
13.
DavisJ. M.BroitmanJ. (2011). Nonverbal learning disabilities in children: Bridging the gap between science and practice. New York, NY: Springer.
14.
DrummondC. R.AhmadS. A.RourkeB. P. (2005). Rules for the classification of younger children with nonverbal learning disabilities and basic phonological processing disabilities. Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology, 20(2), 171-182.
15.
FletcherJ. M. (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities and suicide—Classification leads to prevention. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22(3), 176, 179.
16.
GoldbergE.CostaL. D. (1981). Hemisphere differences in the acquisition and use of descriptive systems. Brain and Language, 14(1), 144-173.
17.
GreshamF. M.ElliottS. N. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle Pines, NM: American Guidance Service.
18.
Gross-TsurV.ShalevR. S.ManorO.AmirN. (1995). Developmental right-hemisphere syndrome: Clinical spectrum of the nonverbal learning disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28(2), 80-86.
19.
HaleC. R.DeLucaJ. W.CaseyJ. E. (2008). HCT and WCST performances of children with ADHD and children with NLD. Paper presented at the poster session presented at the meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society, Waikoloa, HI.
20.
HarnadekM. C. S.RourkeB. P. (1994). Principal identifying features of the syndrome of nonverbal learning–Disabilities in children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27(3), 144-154.
21.
HeatonR. K.MillerS. W.TaylorM. J.GrantI. (2004). Revised comprehensive norms for an expanded Halstead-Reitan battery: Demographically adjusted neuropsychological norms for African Americans and Caucasian adults: Professional manual. Lutz, FL: PAR.
22.
JohnsonD. J.MyklebustH. R. (1967). Learning disabilities: Educational principles and practices. Orlando, FL: Grune & Stratton.
KlinA.VolkmarF. R.SparrowS. S.CicchettiD. V.RourkeB. P. (1995). Validity and neuropsychological characterization of Asperger syndrome: Convergence with nonverbal learning disabilities syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 1127-1140.
MayesS. D.CalhounS. L.CritesD. L. (2001). DoesDSM-IV Asperger’s disorder exist? Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, 263-271.
27.
MillerJ. N.OzonoffS. (2000). The external validity of Asperger disorder: Lack of evidence from the domain of neuropsychology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 227-238.
28.
MitrushinaM.BooneK. B.RazaniJ.D’EliaL. F. (2005). Handbook of normative data for neuropsychological assessment. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
29.
NowickiS.Jr.DukeN. P. (1994). Individual differences in the non-verbal communication of affect: The Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Accuracy (DANVA) Scale. Journal of Nonverbal Communication, 18, 9-18.
30.
OzolsE. J.RourkeB. P. (1985). Dimensions of social sensitivity in two types of learning-disabled children. In RourkeB. P. (Ed.), Neuropsychology of learning disabilities: Essentials of subtype analysis (pp. 281-301). New York, NY: Guilford.
31.
OzonoffS.SouthM.MillerJ. N. (2000). DSM-IV-defined Asperger syndrome: Cognitive, behavioral and early history differentiation from high-functioning autism. Autism, 4(1), 29-46.
32.
PelletierP. M.AhmadS. A.RourkeB. P. (2001). Classification rules for basic phonological processing disabilities and nonverbal learning disabilities: Formulation and external validity. Child Neuropsychology, 7(2), 84-98.
33.
PettiV. L.VoelkerS. L.ShoreD. L.Hayman-AbelloS. E. (2003). Perception of nonverbal emotion cues by children with nonverbal learning disabilities. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 15(1), 23-36.
34.
PoirierN.GaucherM. (2009). Le syndrome d’Asperger et le syndrome de dysfonctions non verbale: caratéristiqus et diagnostic différentiel [Asperger syndrome and nonverbal dysfunction: Characteristics and differential diagnosis]. L’Évolution Psychiatrique, 74, 606-620.
35.
ReynoldsC. R.KamphausR. W. (1992). Behavior Assessment System for Children manual (1st ed.). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Services.
36.
RisM. D.AmmermanR. T.WallerN.WalzN.OppenheimerS.BrownT. M.. . . YeatesK. O. (2007). Taxonicity of nonverbal learning disabilities in spina bifida. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 13(1), 50-58.
37.
RisM. D.NortzM. (2008). Nonverbal learning disorder. In MorganJ. E.RickerJ. H. (Eds.), Textbook of clinical neuropsychology (pp. 346-359). New York, NY: Taylor & Francis.
38.
RosenbaumP.StewartD. (2004). The World Health Organization International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health: A model to guide clinical thinking, practice and research in the field of cerebral palsy. Seminars in Pediatric Neurology, 11(1), 5-10.
39.
RourkeB. P. (1988). The syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Developmental manfestations in neurological disease, disorder, and dysfunction. Clinical Neuropsychologist, 2, 293-330.
40.
RourkeB. P. (1989). Nonverbal learning disabilities: The syndrome and the model. New York, NY: Guilford.
41.
RourkeB. P.FinlaysonM. A. J. (1978). Neuropsychological significance of variations in patterns of academic performance: Verbal and visual-spatial abilities. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 6(1), 121-133.
42.
RourkeB. P.TelegdyG. A. (1971). Lateralizing significance of WISC verbal-performance discrepancies for older children with learning disabilities. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 33, 875-883.
43.
RourkeB. P.TsatsanisD. (1996). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities: Psycholinguistic assets and deficits. Topics in Language Disorders, 16(2), 30-44.
44.
RourkeB. P.YoungG. C.FlewellingR. W. (1971). Relationships between WISC verbal-performance discrepancies and selected verbal, auditory-perceptual, visual-perceptual, and problem-solving abilities in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 27, 475-479.
45.
SattlerJ. (2008). Assessment of children: Cognitive foundations (5th ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome M. Sattler.
46.
Semrud-ClikemanM.WalkowiakJ.WilkinsonA.ChristopherG. (2010). Neuropsychological differences among children with Asperger syndrome, nonverbal learning disabilities, attention deficit disorder, and controls. Developmental Neuropsychology, 35, 582-600. doi:10.1080/87565641.2010.49474710.1080/87565641.2010.494747
47.
SparrowS. S.ChiccettiD. V.BallaD. A. (2005). Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales–Second edition. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
48.
StanovichK. E. (1988). Explaining the differences between the dyslexic and the garden-variety poor reader: The phonological-core variable-difference model. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 590-604, 612.
49.
StrangJ. D.RourkeB. P. (1983). Concept-formation non-verbal reasoning abilities of children who exhibit specific academic problems with arithmetic. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 12(1), 33-39.
50.
SullivanK.BowdenS. C. (1997). Which tests do neuropsychologists use?Journal of Clinical Psychology, 53, 657-661.
51.
TranelD.HallL. E.OlsonS.TranelN. N. (1987). Evidence for a right-hemisphere developmental learning-disability. Developmental Neuropsychology, 3(2), 113-127.
52.
TsatsanisD.RourkeB. P. (2008). Syndrome of nonverbal learning disabilities in adults. In WolfL. E.SchreiberH. E.WassersteinJ. (Eds.), Adult learning disorders: Contemporary issues (pp. 159-190). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
53.
VoellerK. K. (1986). Right-hemisphere deficit syndrome in children. American Journal of Psychiatry, 143, 1004-1009.
54.
WassersteinJ.VadhanN. P.BarbozaK.StefanatosG. A. (2008). Outcomes in probable nonverbal learning disabled (NLD) adults: A naturalistic study. In WolfL. E.SchreiberH. E.WassersteinJ. (Eds.), Adult learning disorders: Contemporary issues (pp. 455-485). New York, NY: Psychology Press.
55.
WechslerD. (1949). Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
56.
WechslerD. (1974). Manual for the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Revised. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
57.
WechslerD. (1999). Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
58.
WechslerD. (2003). WISC-IV: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children–Fourth edition: Admininstration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation.
59.
WechslerD. (2008). The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale–Fourth edition (WAIS-IV): Administration and scoring manual. San Antonio, TX: Pearson.
60.
WitwerA. N.LecavalierL. (2008). Examining the validity of autism spectrum disorder subtypes [Validation Studies]. Journal of autism and developmental disorders, 38, 1611-1624. doi:10.1007/s10803-008-0541-210.1007/s10803-008-0541-2
61.
World Health Organization. (1992). The ICD-10 classification of mental and behavioral disorders: Clinical descriptions and diagnostic guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
62.
World Health Organization. (2001). International classification of functioning, disability and health: ICF. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
63.
World Health Organization. (2007). Internation classification of functioning, disability and health: Children and youth version: ICF-CY. Geneva, Switzerland: Author.
