Palliative Care for Delirium in Patients in the Last weeks of Life: The Final Frontier

Lawlor P.G. , Gagnon B. , Mancini I.L. Occurrence, causes, and outcome of delirium in patients with advanced cancer: a prospective study. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160(6): 786–794.

Centeno C. , Sanz A. , Bruera E. Delirium in advanced cancer patients. Palliat Med 2004; 18(3): 184–194.

Hui D. , Reddy A. , Palla S. Neuroleptic prescription pattern for delirium in patients with advanced cancer. J Palliat Care 2011; 27(2): 141–147.

Ely E.W. , Gautam S. , Margolin R. The impact of delirium in the intensive care unit on hospital length of stay. Intensive Care Med 2001; 27(12): 1892–1900.

Lawlor P.G. , Bruera E.D. Delirium in patients with advanced cancer. Hematol Oncol Clin North Am 2002; 16(3): 701–714.

Morita T. , Akechi T. , Ikenaga M. Terminal delirium: recommen dations from bereaved families’ experiences. J Pain Symptom Manage 2007; 34(6): 579–589.

Fainsinger R.L. , Tapper M. , Bruera E. A perspective on the management of delirium in terminally ill patients on a palliative care unit. J Palliat Care 1993; 9(3): 4–8.

Reddy S.K. , Nguyen N. , El Osta B. Opioids masquerading as delirium in a patient with cancer pain and obstructive sleep apnea. J Palliat Med 2008; 11(7): 1043–1045. doi: 10.1089/jpm.2008. 9864.

Morita T. , Tei Y. , Inoue S. Impaired communication capacity and agitated delirium in the final week of terminally ill cancer patients: prevalence and identification of research focus. J Pain Symptom Manage 2003; 26(3): 827–834.

Swigart S.E. , Kishi Y. , Thurber S. Misdiagnosed delirium in patient referrals to a university-based hospital psychiatry department. Psychosomatics 2008; 49(2): 104–108. doi: 10.1176/appi. psy.49.2.104.

Wada T. , Wada M. , Wada M. Characteristics, interventions, and outcomes of misdiagnosed delirium in cancer patients. Palliat Support Care 2010; 8(2): 125–131. doi: 10.1017/S147895150 9990861.

Burton C.Z. , Twamley E.W. , Lee L.C. Undetected cognitive impairment and decision-making capacity in patients receiving hospice care. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2012; 20(4): 306–316. doi: 10.1097/JGP.0b013e3182436987.

Maldonado J.R. Neuropathogenesis of delirium: review of current etiologic theories and common pathways. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 2013; 21(12): 1190–1222. doi: 10.1016/j.jagp.2013.09.005.

Inouye S.K. Delirium in older persons. N Engl J Med 2006; 354(11): 1157–1165.

Adamis D. Statistical methods for analysing longitudinal data in delirium studies. Int Rev Psychiatry 2009; 21(1): 74–85. doi: 10.1080/09540260802675346.

de Rooij S.E. , van Munster B.C. , Korevaar J.C. Cytokines and acute phase response in delirium. J Psychosom Res 2007; 62(5): 521–525.

van Munster B.C. , Korevaar J.C. , Zwinderman Time-course of cytokines during delirium in elderly patients with hip fractures. J Am Geriatr Soc 2008; 56(9): 1704–1709. doi: 10.1111/j.1532-5415.2008.01851.x.

Soiza R.L. , Sharma V. , Ferguson K. Neuroimaging studies of delirium: a systematic review. J Psychosom Res 2008; 65(3): 239–248. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2008.05.021.

Liptzin B. , Levkoff S.E. An empirical study of delirium subtypes. Br J Psychiatry 1992; 161: 843–845.

Meagher D.J. , Leonard M. , Donnelly S. A longitudinal study of motor subtypes in delirium: relationship with other phenomenology, etiology, medication exposure and prognosis. J Psy-chosom Res 2011; 71(6): 395–403. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2011.06.001.

Seitz D.P. , Gill S.S. , van Zyl L.T. Antipsychotics in the treatment of delirium: a systematic review. J Clin Psychiatry 2007; 68(1): 11–21.

Hui D. , Dos Santos R. , Chisholm G. Clinical signs of impending death in cancer patients. Oncologist 2014; 19(6): 681–687. doi: 10.1634/theoncologist.2013–0457.

Hui D. , Dos Santos R. , Chisholm G. Bedside clinical signs associated with impending death in patients with advanced cancer: preliminary findings. Cancer; forthcoming 2014.

Hui D. , Bush S.H. , Gallo L.E. Neuroleptic dose in the management of delirium in patients with advanced cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage 2010; 39(2): 186–196. doi: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman. 2009.07.009.

Breitbart W. , Strout D. Delirium in the terminally ill. Clin Geriatr Med 2000; 16(2): 357–372.

Breitbart W. , Alici Y. Agitation and delirium at the end of life: “We couldn't manage him.” JAMA 2008; 300(24): 2898–2910, E1. doi: 10.1001/jama.2008.885.

Meagher D.J. Delirium: optimising management. BMJ 2001; 322(7279): 144–149.

National Collaborating Centre for Acute and Chronic Conditions. Delirium: diagnosis, prevention and management. London: National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence; 2010. (Clinical guideline series; 103).

Candy B. , Jackson K.C. , Jones L. Drug therapy for delirium in terminally ill adult patients. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2012; 11: CD004770. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD004770.pub2.

Breitbart W. , Marotta R. , Platt M.M. A double-blind trial of haloperidol, chlorpromazine, and lorazepam in the treatment of delirium in hospitalized AIDS patients. Am J Psychiatry 1996; 153(2): 231–237.

Levy M.H. , Adolph M.D. , Back A. National Comprehensive Cancer Network (NCCN) clinical practice guidelines in oncology. NCCN guidelines for supportive care: palliative care. Fort Washington (PA): NCCN; 2014.

Sweet L. , Adamis D. , Meagher D. Ethical challenges and solutions regarding delirium studies in palliative care. J Pain Symptom Manage 2013; 48(2): 259–271. doi: 10.1016/j.jpainsymman. 2013.07.017.

Fan E. , Shahid S. , Kondreddi V.P. Informed consent in the critically ill: a two-step approach incorporating delirium screening. Crit Care Med 2008; 36(1): 94–99.

Pandharipande P.P. , Pun B.T. , Herr D.L. Effect of sedation with dexmedetomidine vs lorazepam on acute brain dysfunction in mechanically ventilated patients: the MENDS randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2007; 298(22): 2644–2653.

Riker R.R. , Shehabi Y. , Bokesch P.M. Dexmedetomidine vs midazolam for sedation of critically ill patients: a randomized trial. JAMA 2009; 301(5): 489–499. doi: 10.1001/jama.2009.56.

Trzepacz P.T. , Mittal D. , Torres R. Validation of the Delirium Rating Scale-revised-98: comparison with the Delirium Rating Scale and the Cognitive Test for Delirium. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 2001; 13(2): 229–242.

Breitbart W. , Rosenfeld B. , Roth A. The Memorial Delirium Assessment Scale. J Pain Symptom Manage 1997; 13(3): 128–137.

Sessler C.N. , Gosnell M.S. , Grap M.J. The Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale: validity and reliability in adult intensive care unit patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 166(10): 1338–1344.

Ely E.W. , Truman B. , Shintani A. Monitoring sedation status over time in ICU patients: reliability and validity of the Richmond Agitation-Sedation Scale (RASS). JAMA 2003; 289(22): 2983–2991.

Morita T. , Tsunoda J. , Inoue S. Communication Capacity Scale and Agitation Distress Scale to measure the severity of delirium in terminally ill cancer patients: a validation study. Palliat Med 2001; 15(3): 197–206.

Breitbart W. , Gibson C. , Tremblay A. The delirium experience: delirium recall and delirium-related distress in hospitalized patients with cancer, their spouses/caregivers, and their nurses. Psychosomatics 2002; 43(3): 183–194.

Bruera E. , Bush S.H. , Willey J. Impact of delirium and recall on the level of distress in patients with advanced cancer and their family caregivers. Cancer 2009; 15(9): 2004–2012. doi: 10.1002/cncr.24215.

Hu H. , Deng W. , Yang H. A prospective random control study comparison of olanzapine and haloperidol in senile delirium. Chongqing Med J 2004; 8: 1234–1237.

Han C.S. , Kim Y.K. A double-blind trial of risperidone and haloperidol for the treatment of delirium. Psychosomatics 2004; 45(4): 297–301.

Kim S.W. , Yoo J.A. , Lee S.Y. Risperidone versus olanzapine for the treatment of delirium. Hum Psychopharmacol 2010; 25(4): 298–302. doi: 10.1002/hup.1117.

Tahir T.A. , Eeles E. , Karapareddy V. A randomized controlled trial of quetiapine versus placebo in the treatment of delirium. J Psychosom Res 2010; 69(5): 485–490. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores. 2010.05.006.

Grover S. , Kumar V. , Chakrabarti S. Comparative efficacy study of haloperidol, olanzapine and risperidone in delirium. J Psy-chosom Res 2011; 71(4): 277–281. doi: 10.1016/j.jpsychores.2011.01.019.

Skrobik Y.K. , Bergeron N. , Dumont M. Olanzapine vs haloperidol: treating delirium in a critical care setting. Intensive Care Med 2004; 30(3): 444–449.

Reade M.C. , O'sullivan K. , Bates S. Dexmedetomidine vs. haloperidol in delirious, agitated, intubated patients: a randomised open-label trial. Crit Care 2009; 13(3): R75. doi: 10.1186/cc7890.

Devlin J.W. , Roberts R.J. , Fong J.J. Efficacy and safety of quetiapine in critically ill patients with delirium: a prospective, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled pilot study. Crit Care Med 2010; 38(2): 419–427. doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e3181b9e302.