Herbicides that inhibit acetolactate synthase (ALS), the enzyme common to the biosynthesis of the branch-chain amino acids (valine, leucine, and isoleucine), affect many species of higher plants as well as bacteria, fungi, yeasts, and algae. The novel mechanism of action attributed to ALS inhibitors, their effect on the reproduction of some plant species, their potency at extremely low concentrations, and the rapid evolution of resistance to these herbicides in some plants and microorganisms are characteristics that set ALS inhibitors apart from their predecessors. This class of chemicals affects seedling growth. Older plants exhibit varied signs of malformation, stunting, and reduced seed production. These herbicides are so potent that they can affect plants at levels that are undetectable by any standard chemical protocol. Weeds quickly become resistant to ALS inhibitors, presumably because these herbicides have a single mode of action and because many have long residual activity. Concern now is directed towards developing the technology to detect very low concentrations of ALS inhibitors in the environment and their indirect effects on plant and animal health.
Ahrens, W. H. (ed.) (1994). Herbicide Handbook, 7th ed.Weed Science Society of America, Champaign, IL.
2.
Alcocer-Ruthling, M., Thill, D. C., and Mallory-Smith, C. (1992). “Monitoring the occurrence of sulfonylurea-resistant prickly lettuce (Lactuca seriola).“Weed Technol.6:437-440.
3.
Alcocer-Ruthling, M., Thill, D. C., and Shafii, B. (1992). “Differential competitiveness of sulfonylurea resistant and susceptible prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola).“Weed Technol.6:303-309.
4.
Alcocer-Ruthling, M., Thill, D. C., and Shafii, B. (1992). “Seed biology of sulfonylurea-resistant and susceptible prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola).“Weed Technol.6:858-864.
5.
Altman, J. and Rovira, A. D. (1989). “Herbicide-pathogen interactions in soil-borne root diseases.“Can. J. Plant Pathol.11:166-172.
6.
Badr, A. and Ibrahim, A. G. (1987). “Effect of herbicide Glean on mitosis, chromosomes and nucleic acids in Allium cepa and Vicia faba root meristems.“Cytologia52:293-302.
7.
Battaglin, W.A., Furlong, E.T., and Peter, C.J. (1998). “A reconnaissance for sulfonylurea herbicides in waters of the Midwestern USA: an example of collaboration between the public and private sectors.” Accessed on the United States Geological Survey internet site, <http://water.wr.usgs.gov/pnsp/index.html>.
8.
Belai, I. and Oros, G. (1996). “Responses of different fungal and plant species to acetolactate synthase inhibitors and their derivatives.“J. Environ. Sci. Health31:615-620.
9.
Bhatti, M. A., Al-Khatib, K., Felsot, A. S., Parker, R., and Kadir, S. (1995). “Effects of simulated chlorsulfuron drift on fruit yield and quality of sweet cherries (Prunus avium l.).“Environ. Toxicol. Chem.14:537-544.
10.
Blair, A. M. and Martin, T. D. (1988). “A review of the activity, fate, and mode of action of sulfonylurea herbicides.“Pestic. Sci.22:195-219.
11.
Brandle, J. E. and Miki, B. L. (1993). “Agronomic performance of sulfonylurea-resistant transgenic flue-cured tobacco grown under field conditions.“Crop Sci.33:847-852.
12.
Brandle, J. E., Labbe, H., Zilkey, B. F., and Miki, B. L. (1992). “Resistance to the sulfonylurea herbicides chlorsulfuron, amidosulfuron, and DPX-R9674 in transgenic flue-cured tobacco.“Crop Sci.32:1049-1053.
13.
Brandle, J. E., Morrison, M. J., Hattori, J., and Miki, B. L. (1994). “A comparison of two genes for sulfonylurea herbicide resistance in transgenic tobacco seedlings.“Crop Sci.34:226-229.
14.
Brewster, B. D. and Appleby, A. P. (1983). “Response of wheat (Triticum aestivum) and rotation crops to chlorsulfuron.“Weed Sci.31:861-865.
15.
Burnet, M. and Hodgson, B. (1991). “Differential effects of the sulfonylurea herbicides chlorsulfuron and sulfometuron methyl on microorganisms.“Arch. Microbiol.155:521-525.
16.
Caretto, S., Giardina, M. C., Nicolodi, C., and Mariotti, D. (1994). “Chlorsulfuron resistance in Daucus carota cell lines and plants: involvement of gene amplifications.“Theor. Appl. Genet.88:520-524.
17.
Challeff, R. S. and Ray, T. B. (1984). “Herbicide-resistant mutants from tobacco cell cultures.“Science223:1148-1151.
18.
Christopher, J. T., Preston, C., and Powles, S. B. (1994). “Malathion antagonizes metabolism-based chlorsulfuron resistance in Lolium rigidum.“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.49:172-182.
19.
Comai, L. and Stalker, D. (1986). “Mechanism of action of herbicides and their molecular manipulation.“Oxford Surv. Plant Mol. Cell. Biol.3:167-195.
20.
Cotterman, J. C. and Saari, L. L. (1992). “Rapid metabolic inactivation is the basis for cross-resistance to chlorsulfuron in diclofop-methyl-resistant rigid ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) biotype SR4/84.“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.43:182-192.
21.
Devine, M. D., Marles, M. A. S., and Hall, L. M. (1991). “Inhibition of acetolactate synthase in susceptible and resistant biotypes of Stellaria media.“Pestic. Sci.31:273-280.
22.
D'Halluin, K., Bossut, M., Bonne, E., Mazure, B., Leemans, J., and Botterman, J. (1992). “Transformation of sugar beet and evaluation of herbicide resistance in transgenetic plants.“Biotechnology10:309-324.
23.
Dumontet, S., Perucci, P., Scopa, A., and Ricciardi, A. (1993). “Sulfonylureas: preliminary study on the effect on selected microbial strains and soil respiration.“Soil Sci. (Trends Agric. Sci.)1:193-198.
24.
Durner, J., Gailus, V., and Boger, P. (1990). “New aspects of inhibition of plant acetolactate synthase by chlorsulfuron and imazaquin.“Plant Physiol.95:1144-1149.
25.
Durner, J., Gailus, V., and Boger, P. (1994). “The oxygenase reaction of acetolactate synthase detected by chemiluminescence.“FEBS Letters354:71-73.
26.
Fahl, G. M., Kreft, L., Altenburger, R., Faust, M., Boedeker, W., and Grimme, L. H. (1995). “pH-dependent sorption, bioconcentration and algal toxicity of sulfonylurea herbicides.“Aquat. Toxicol.31:175-187.
27.
Falco, S. C. and Dumas, K. S. (1985). “Genetic analysis of mutants of Saccharamyces cerevisia resistant to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl.“Genetics109:21-35.
28.
Fletcher, J. S., Pfleeger, T. G., and Ratsch, H. C. (1993). “Potential environmental risks associated with the new sulfonylurea herbicides.“Environ. Sci. Technol.27:2250-2252.
29.
Fletcher, J. S., Pfleeger, T. G., Ratsch, H. C., and Hayes, R. (1996). “Potential impact of low levels of chlorsulfuron and other herbicides on growth and yield of nontarget plants.“Environ. Toxicol. Chem.15:1189-1196.
30.
Forlani, G., Mantelli, M., Branzoni, M., Nielsen, E., and Favilli, F. (1995). “Differential sensitivity of plant-associated bacteria to sulfonylurea and imidazolinone herbicides.“Plant Soil.176:243-253.
31.
Freidberg, D. and Seijffers, J. (1990). “Molecular characterization of genes coding for wild-type and sulfonylurea-resistant acetolactate synthase in the Cyanobacterium Synechococcus PCC7942.“Z. Naturforsch45:538-543.
32.
Friesen, L. F., Morrison, I. N., Rashid, A., and Devine, M. D. (1993). “Response of a chlorsulfuron-resistant biotype of Kochia scoparia to sulfonylurea and alternate herbicides.“Weed Sci.41:100-106.
33.
Gabard, J. M., Charest, P. J., Iyer, V. N., and Miki, B. L. (1989). “Cross-resistance to short residual sulfonylurea herbicides in transgenic tobacco plants.“Plant Physiol.91:574-580.
34.
Gerwick, B. C., Mireles, L. C., and Eilers, R. J. (1993). “Rapid diagnosis of ALS/AHAS-resistant weeds.“Weed Technol.7:519-524.
35.
Gianessi, L. P. and Anderson, J. E. (1995). Pesticide use in US crop production: national data report. National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Washington, DC.
36.
Gilpatrick, J. D. (1983). “Management of resistance in plant pathogens.” In: Pest Resistance to Pesticides (G. P. Saito and T. Georghiou, eds.). Plenum Press, New York, NY. pp. 735-767.
37.
Grant, W. F. and McDougall, R. B. (1995). “Registration of H402-4-4-2 birdsfoot trefoil germplasm resistant to sulfonylurea.“Crop Sci.35:286-287.
38.
Gressel, J. and Segel, L. A. (1982). “Interrelating factors controlling the rate of appearance of resistance: the outlook for the future.” In: Herbicide Resistance in Plants (H. M. Lebaron and J. Gressel, eds.). John Wiley and Sons, New York, NY. pp. 325-347.
39.
Guttieri, M. J., Eberlein, C. V., Mallory-Smith, C. A., Thill, D. C., and Hoffman, D. L. (1992). “DNA sequence variation in domain A of the acetolactate synthase gene of herbicide-resistant and -susceptible weeds.“Weed Sci.40:620-676.
40.
Guttieri, M. J., Eberlein, C. V., and Thill, D. C. (1995). “Diverse mutations in acetolactate synthase gene confer chlorsulfuron resistance in Kochia (Kochia scoparia) biotypes.“Weed Sci.43: 175-178.
41.
Hageman, L. H. and Behrens, R. (1984). “Basis for response differences of two broadleaf weeds to chlorsulfuron.“Weed Sci.32:162-167.
42.
Hall, L. M. and Devine, M. D. (1990). “Cross-resistance of a chlorsulfuron-resistant biotype of Stellaria media to a triazolpyrimidine herbicide.“Plant Physiol.93:962-966.
43.
Hannan, P. J. (1995). “A novel detection scheme for herbicidal residues.“Environ. Toxicol. Chem.14:775-780.
44.
Harms, C. T., Armour, S. L., Dimaio, J. J., Middlestedt, L. A., Murray, D., Negrotto, D. V., Thompson-Taylor, H., Weymann, K., Montoya, A. L., Shillito, R. D., and Jen, G. C. (1992). “Herbicide resistance due to amplification of a mutant acetohydroxyacid synthase gene.“Mol. Gen. Genet.233:427-435.
45.
Hart, S. E., Saunders, J. W., and Penner, D. (1992). “Chlorsulfuron-resistant sugar beet: cross-resistance and physiological basis of resistance.“Weed Sci.40:378-383.
46.
Hartnett, M. E., Newcomb, J. R., and Hodson, R. C. (1987). “Mutations in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii conferring resistance to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl.“Plant Physiol.85:898-901.
47.
Harvey, J., Jr., Dulka, J., and Anderson, J. (1985). “Properties of sulfometuron methyl affecting its environmental fate: aqueous hydrolysis and photolysis, mobility and adsorption on soils, and bioaccumulation potential.“J. Agric. Food Chem.33:590-596.
48.
Hattori, J., Rutledge, R., Labbe, H., Brown, D., Sunohara, G., and Miki, B. (1992). “Multiple resistance to sulfonylureas and imidazolinones conferred by an acetohydroxyacid synthase gene with separate mutations for selective resistance.“Mol. Gen. Genet.232:167-173.
49.
Haughn, G. W., Smith, J., Mazur, B., and Somerville, C. (1988). “Transformation with a mutant Arabidopsis acetolactate synthase gene renders tobacco resistant to sulfonylurea herbicides.“Mol. Gen. Genet.211:266-271.
50.
Heap, I. M. (1997). “The occurrence of herbicide-resistant weeds worldwide.“Pestic. Sci.51:235-243.
51.
Heap, I. (1998). “International survey of herbicide resistant weeds.”Herbicide Resistance Action Committee and the Weed Science Society of America. Accessed on the Internet at <www.weedscience.com>, October 8.
52.
Kang, M. S. (1993). “Inheritance of susceptibility to nicosulfuron herbicides in maize.“J. Hered.84:216-217.
53.
Landstein, D., Epelbaum, S., Arad, S., Barak, Z., and Chipman, D. M. (1995). “Metabolic response of Chlorella emersonii to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl.“Planta197:219-224.
54.
LaRossa, R. A. and Schloss, J. V. (1984). “The sulfonylurea herbicide sulfometuron methyl is an extremely potent and selective inhibitor of acetolactate synthase in Salmonella typhimurium.“J. Biol. Chem.259:8753-8757.
55.
LaRossa, R. A. and Smulski, D. R. (1984). “Encoded acetolactate synthase is resistant to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl.“J. Bacteriol.160:391-394.
56.
LaRossa, R. A. and Van Dyk, T. K. (1987). “Metabolic mayhem caused by 2-ketoacid imbalances.“BioEssays7:125-130.
57.
LaRossa, R. A. and Van Dyk, T. K. (1988). “Utilization of sulfometuron methyl, an acetolactate synthase inhibitor, in molecular biological and metabolic studies of plants and microbes.” In: Branched-Chain Amino Acids, Methods in Enzymology Series, Volume 166 (R. A. Harris and J. R. Sokatch, eds.). Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 97-107.
58.
LaRossa, R. A. and Van Dyk, T. K. (1989). “Leaky pantothenate and thiamin mutations of Salmonella typhimurium conferring sulphometuron methyl sensitivity.“J. Gen. Microbiol.135: 2209-2222.
59.
LaRossa, R. A., Yadav, N. S., and Falco, S. C. (1985). “Amino acid biosynthesis: the use of microbes to discover targets of herbicide action.”Am. Chem. Soc. Abstr.87-87.
60.
Lavigne, C., Manach, H., Guyard, C., and Gasquez, J. (1995). “The cost of herbicide resistance in white-chicory: ecological implications for its commercial release.“Theor. Appl. Genet.91:1301-1308.
61.
Levy, S. B. (1992). The Antibiotic Paradox. Plenum Press, New York, NY.
62.
Mahnken, G. E. and Weber, J. B. (1988). “Capillary movement of triasulfuron and chlorsulfuron in Rion sand loam soil.“Proc. Southern Weed Sci. Soc.68:332-336.
63.
Mallory-Smith, C. A., Thill, D. C., and Dial, M. J. (1990). “Identification of sulfonylurea herbicide-resistant prickly lettuce (Lactuca serriola).“Weed Technol.4:163-168.
64.
Mallory-Smith, C. A., Thill, D. C., and Saari, L. L. (1991). “Survey of sulfonylurea herbicide resistant agricultural sites.”Proc. Weed Sci. Soc. Am.31:83-83.
65.
Martensson, A. M. and Nilsson, A. K. (1989). “Effects of chlorsulfuron on Rhizobium grown in pure culture and in symbiosis with alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and red clover (Trifolium pratense).“Weed Sci.37:445-450.
66.
McHughen, A. and Holm, F. (1991). “Herbicide-resistant transgenic flax field test: agronomic performance in normal and sulfonylurea-containing soils.“Euphytica55:49-56.
67.
Moyer, J. R., Esau, R., and Kozub, G. C. (1990). “Chlorsulfuron persistence and response of nine rotational crops in alkaline soils of southern Alberta.“Weed Technol.4:543-548.
68.
Obrigawitch, T. T., Strek, H. J., and Lichtner, F. T. (1989). “Evaluation of laboratory and field techniques for determination of a no-effect level of activity for sulfonylurea herbicides.“Aspects Appl. Biol.21:131-132.
69.
O'Donovan, J. T., Jeffers, G. M., and Maurice, D. (1994). “Investigation of a chlorsulfuron-resistant chickweed [Stellaria media (L.) Vill.] population.“Can. J. Plant Sci.74:693-697.
70.
O'Keefe, D. P., Romesser, J. A., and Leto, K. J. (1987). “Phytochemical effects of environmental compounds.” In: Recent Advances in Phytochemistry, Volume 21 (J. A. Saunders, L. Kosak-Channing, and E. E. Conn, eds.). Plenum Press, New York, NY. pp. 151-173.
71.
O'Keefe, D. P., Romesser, J. A., and Leto, K. J. (1988). “Identification of constitutive and herbicide inducible cytochromes P-450 in Streptomyces griseolus.“Arch. Microbiol.149:406-412.
72.
Patil, S. G., Nicholls, P. H., Chamberlin, K., Briggs, G. G., and Bromilow, R. H. (1988). “Degradation rates in soil of 1-benzyltriazoles and two triazine fungicides.“Pestic. Sci.22:333-342.
73.
Perucci, P. and Scarponi, L. (1996). “Side effects of rimsulfuron on the microbial biomass of a clay-loam soil.“J. Environ. Qual.25:610-613.
74.
Pillmoor, J. B. (1989). “Amino acid biosynthesis: an Aladdin's cave of new pesticide targets?”Br. Crop Protect Conf. Mono.42:23-29.
75.
Pofelis, S., Le, H., and Grant, W. F. (1992). “The development of sulfonylurea herbicide-resistant birdsfoot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus) plants from in vitro selection.“Theor. Appl. Genet.83:48-488.
76.
Preston, C., Tardif, F. J., Christopher, J. T., and Powles, S. B. (1996). “Multiple resistance to dissimilar herbicide chemistries in a biotype Lolium rigidum due to enhanced activity of several herbicide degrading enzymes.“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.54:123-124.
77.
Primiani, M. M., Cotterman, J. C., and Saari, L. L. (1990). “Resistance of Kochia (Kochia scoparia) to sulfonylurea and imidazolinone herbicides.“Weed Technol.4:169-172.
78.
Ray, T. B. (1980). “Studies on the mode of action of DPX-4189.”Proc. Br. Crop Protect 1980 Conf. 8-14.
79.
Ray, T. B. (1982). “The mode of action of chlorsulfuron: a new herbicide for cereals.“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.17:10-17.
80.
Rovira, A. D. and McDonald, A. J. (1986). “Effects of the herbicide chlorsulfuron on Rhizoctonia bare patch and take-all of barley and wheat.“Plant Dis.70:879-882.
81.
Rowland, G. G., McHughen, A., Gusta, L. V., Bhatty, R. S., MacKenzie, S. L., and Taylor, D. C. (1995). “The application of chemical mutagenesis and biotechnology to the modification of linseed.“Euphytica85:317-321.
82.
Rubin, B., Sibony, M., Benyamini, Y., and Danino, Y. (1992). “Resistance to sulfonylurea herbicides in redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus L.).”Proc Weed. Sci. Soc. Am.32:66-66.
83.
Saari, L. L., Cotterman, J. C., Smith, W. F., and Primiani, M. M. (1992). “Sulfonylurea herbicide resistance on common chickweed, perennial ryegrass, and Russian thistle.“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.42:110-118.
84.
Saari, L. L., Cotterman, J. C., and THILL, D. C. (1994). “Resistance to acetolactate synthase-inhibiting herbicides.” In: Herbicide Resistance in Plants: Biology and Biochemistry (S. B. Powles, J. A. M. Holtum, eds.). Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL. pp. 83-139.
85.
Saunders, J. W., Acquahh, G., Renner, K. A., and Doley, W. P. (1992). “Monogenic dominant sulfonylurea resistance in sugar beet from somatic cell selection.“Crop Sci.32:1257-1360.
86.
Scheel, D. and Casida, J. E. (1985). “Sulfonylurea herbicides: growth inhibition in soybean cell suspension cultures and in bacteria correlated with block in biosynthesis of valine, leucine, or isoleucine.“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.23:398-412.
87.
Schloss, J. V. (1989). “Origin of the herbicide binding site of acetolactate synthase.“Br. Crop Protect Conf. Mono.42:147-152.
88.
Schmitzer, P. R., Eilers, R. J., and Cseke, C. (1993). “Lack of cross-resistance of imazaquin-resistant Xanthium strumarium acetolactate synthase to flumetsulam and chlorimuron.“Plant Physiol.103:281-283.
89.
Shaner, E. L. (1992). The Imidazolinone Herbicides. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
90.
Sivakumaran, K., Mulgeta, D., and Fay, P. K. (1993). “Differential herbicide response among sulfonylurea-resistant Kochia scoparia L. accessions.“Weed Sci.41:159-165.
91.
Smeda, R. J., Vaughn, K. C., and Morrison, I. N. (1992). “A novel pattern of herbicide cross-resistance in a trifluralin-resistant biotype of green foxtail [Setaria viridis (L.) Beauv.].“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.42:227-241.
92.
Smiley, R. W. and Wilkins, D. E. (1992). “Impact of sulfonylurea herbicides on Rhyzoctonia root rot, growth and yield of winter wheat.“Plant Dis.76:399-404.
93.
Stallings, G. P., Thill, D. C., and Mallory-Smith, C. A. (1994). “Sulfonylurea-resistant Russian thistle (Salsola iberica) survey in Washington state.“Weed Technol.8:258-264.
94.
Stallings, G. P., Thill, D. C., Mallory-Smith, C. A., and Lass, L. W. (1995). “Plant movement and mediated seed dispersal of Russian thistle (Salsola iberica).“Weed Sci.43:63-64.
95.
Stallings, G. P., Thill, D. C., Mallory-Smith, C. A., and Shafii, B. (1995). “Pollen-mediated gene flow of sulfonylurea-resistant Kochia (Kochia scoparia).“Weed Sci.43:95-102.
96.
State of California Pesticide Use Summaries (statewide) (1991). Developed by the Statewide IPM Project, with data from the California EPA Department of Pesticide Regulation, and available on the internet at <http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/>, February 4, 1997.
97.
Strek, H. J., Burkhart, D. C., Strachan, S. D., Peter, C. J., Ruggiero, M., and Warner, R. W. (1989). “Use of bioassays to characterize the risk of injury to follow crops by sulfonylurea herbicides.“Proc. Br. Crop Protect Conf.1:245-250.
98.
Sweetser, P. B., Schow, G. S., and Hutchison, J. M. (1981). “Metabolism of chlorsulfuron by plants: biological basis for selectivity of a new herbicide for cereals.“Pestic. Biochem. Physiol.17:18-23.
99.
Thill, D. C., Mallory-Smith, C. A., Saari, L. L., Cotterman, J. C., Primiani, M. M., and Saladini, J. L. (1991). “Sulfonylurea herbicide resistant weeds: discovery, distribution, biology, mechanisms and management.” In: Herbicide Resistance in Weeds and Crops (J. C. Caseley, G. W. Cussans, R. K. Atkins, eds.). Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK. pp. 115-128.
100.
Thompson, C. R., Thill, D. C., and Shafii, B. (1994). “Germination characteristics of sulfonylurea-resistant and -susceptible Kochia (Kochia scoparia).“Weed Sci.42:50-56.
101.
Thompson, C. R., Thill, D. C., and Shafii, B. (1994). “Growth and competitiveness of sulfonylurea-resistant and susceptible Kochia (Kochia scoparia).“Weed Sci.42:172-179.
102.
Thompson, C. R., Thill, D. C., Mallory-Smith, C. A., and Shafii, B. (1994). “Characterization of sulfonylurea-resistant and -susceptible Kochia (Kochia scoperia).“Weed Technol.8:470-476.
103.
Tonnemaker, K. A., Auld, D. L., Thill, D. C., Mallory-Smith, C. A., and Erickson, D. A. (1992). “Development of sulfonylurea-resistant rapeseed using chemical mutagenesis.“Crop Sci.32:1287-1391.
104.
Turner, S. A. (1987). “Post-applications movement of sulfometuron methyl from treated rights-of-way areas via wind (soil) erosion.“Proceedings from the Symposium on Environmental Concerns in Rights-of-Way Management4:575-579.
105.
Van Dyk, T. K. and LaRossa, R. A. (1987). “Involvement of ack-pta operon products in a-ketobutyrate metabolism by Salmonella typhimurium.“Mol. Gen. Genet.207:435-440.
106.
Veeh, R. H., Inskeep, W. P., Roe, F. L., and Ferguson, A. H. (1994). “Transport of chlorsulfuron through soil columns.“J. Environ. Qual.23:542-549.
107.
Vermeulen, A., Vaucheret, H., Pautot, V., and Chupeau, Y. (1992). “Agrobacterium-mediated transfer of a mutant Arabidopsis acetolactate synthase gene confers resistance to chlorsulfuron in chicory (Cichorium intybus L.).“Plant Cell Reports11:243-247.
108.
Werkheiser, W. O. and Anderson, S. J. (1996). “Effect of soil properties and surfactant on primsulfuron sorption.“J. Environ. Qual.25:809-814.
109.
Wheeler, J. R. and McNally, M. E. (1987). “Comparison of packed column and capillary column supercritical fluid chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography using representative herbicides and pesticides as typical moderate polarity and molecular weight range molecules.“J. Chromatogr.410:343-353.
110.
Winder, T. and Spalding, M. H. (1988). “Imazaquin and chlorsulfuron resistance and cross resistance in mutants of Chlamydomonas reinhardtii.“Mol. Gen. Genet.213:394-399.
111.
Xing, R. Y. and Whitman, W. B. (1987). “Sulfometuron methyl-sensitive and resistant acetolactate synthases of the archaebacteria Methanococcus spp.“J. Bacteriol.169:4486-4492.
112.
Yaacov, R. B., Knoller, S., Caldwell, G. A., Becker, J. M., and Koltin, Y. (1994). “Candida albicans gene encoding resistance to benomyl and methotrexate is a multidrug resistance gene.“J. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother.38:648-652.
113.
Yadav, N., McDevitt, R. E., Benard, S., and Falco, S. C. (1986). “Single amino acid substitutions in the enzyme acetolactate synthase confer resistance to the herbicide sulfometuron methyl.“Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.83:4418-4422.
114.
Zahnow, E. W. and Waeghe, T. J. (1988). “Sulfometuron methyl.” In: Analytical Methods for Pesticides and Plant Growth Regulators, Volume 16 (G. Zweig, ed.). Academic Press, New York, NY. pp. 105-116.
