Several studies have shown that numerous National Priorities List (NPL) sites have been contaminated with arsenic (747), cadmium (791), chloroform (596), or nickel (664). The National Toxicology Program (NTP, 1991) has classified these substances as known human carcinogens (arsenic and certain arsenic compounds) or as substances that may reasonably be anticipated to be carcinogens (cadmium and certain cadmium compounds, chloroform, and nickel and certain nickel compounds). The general population is probably exposed to low levels of these hazardous substances through drinking water, eating food, or inhaling contaminated air. People working or living near industries and facilities that manufacture and use chloroform, nickel, arsenic, or cadmium may be exposed to higher than background levels of these hazardous substances. Multiple pathways of exposure may exist for populations near hazardous waste sites. For example, high levels of chloroform (1,890 ppb) were found in well water near a waste site; high levels of cadmium exposure may exist for individuals living near cadmium-contaminated waste sites.
AdesA.E.KazantzisG. (1988). “Lung cancer in a non-ferrous smelter: The role of cadmium.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 45:435–442.
2.
AGENCY FOR TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND DISEASE REGISTRY (ATSDR). (1988). Toxicological Profile for Cadmium. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Service.
3.
AGENCY FOR TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND DISEASE REGISTRY (ATSDR). (1988). Toxicological Profile for Chloroform. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Service.
4.
AGENCY FOR TOXIC SUBSTANCES AND DISEASE REGISTRY (ATSDR). (1988). Toxicological Profile for Nickel. Atlanta: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Public Service.
5.
AmbroseA.M.LarsonP.S.BorzellecaJ.R.HennigarG.R.Jr. (1976). “Long term toxicologic assessment of nickel in rats and dogs.”J. Food Sci. Technol. 13:181–187.
6.
AndelmanJ.B.BarnettM. (1983). “Feasibility study to resolve questions on the relationship of arsenic in drinking water to skin cancer. Final report.” Report to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington, D.C., by Center for Environmental Epidemiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA.
7.
AndersonK.ElinderC.G.HogstedtC.KjellstromT.SpangG. (1984). “Mortality among cadmium and nickel-exposed workers in a Swedish battery factory.”Toxicol. Environ. Chem. 9(1): 53–62.
8.
ArmstrongB.G.KazantisG. (1983). “The mortality of cadmium workers.”Lancet (June 25):1425–1427.
9.
AxelsonO.DahlgrenE.JanssonC.D.RehnlundS.O. (1978). “Arsenic exposure and mortality: A case referent study from a Swedish copper smelter.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 35:8–15.
10.
BaetjerA.M.LilienfeldA.M.LevinM.L. (1975). “Cancer and occupational exposure to inorganic arsenic.” In: Abstracts: 18th International Congress on Occupational Health, Brighton, England, September 14–19, 1975. Brighton, England: International Congress on Occupational Health, Organizing Committee, p. 393.
11.
BarrettJ.CShelbyM.D. (1986). “Mechanisms of multistep carcinogenesis: Keys to developing in vitro approaches for assessing the carcinogenicity of chemicals.”Food Chem. Toxicol. 24:657–661.
12.
BernardA.LauwerysR. (1986). “Effects of cadmium exposure in humans”. In: Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology (FoulkesE. C., ed.). Vol. 80. Berlin: Springer Verlag, pp. 135–177.
13.
BlejerH.P.AWagnerW. (1976). “Case study 4: Inorganic arsenic-ambient level approach to the control of occupational cancerigenic exposures.”Ann. N. Acad. Sci. 271:179–186.
14.
BrownC.C.ChuK.C. (1983) “Approaches to epidemiologic analysis of prospective and retrospective studies:'Example of lung cancer and exposure to arsenic.” In: Proceedings of the SIMS Conference on Environmental Epidemiology: Risk Assessment, Alta, Utah. June 28-July 2, 1982.
15.
BrownL.M.PotternL.M.BoltW.J. (1984). “Lung cancer in relation to environmental pollutants emmitted from industrial sources.”Environ. Res. 34:250–261.
16.
BullR.J.BrownJ.M.MeierhenryE.A. (1986). “Enhancement of the hepatotoxicity of chloroform in B6C3F1 mice by corn oil: Implications for chloroform carcinogenesis.”Environ. Health Perspect. 69:49–58.
17.
CapelI.D.DorrellHlm.JennerM.PinnockM.H.WilliamsD.C. (1979). “The effect of chloroform ingestion on the growth of some murine tumours.”Europ. J. Cancer15:1485–1490.
18.
CebrianM.E.AlboresA.AnguilarM.BlakleyE. (1983). “Chronic arsenic poisoning in the north of Mexico.”Hum. Toxicol2:121–133.
19.
ChenC.J.ChuangY.C.LinT.M.WuH.Y. (1985). “Malignant neoplasms among residents of a Blackfoot disease endemic area in Taiwan: High-Arsenic artesian well water and cancers.”Cancer Res. 45:5895–5899.
20.
ChenC.J.ChuangY.C.YouS.L.LinT.M.WuH.Y. (1986). “A retrospective study on malignant neoplasms of bladder, lung, and liver in blackfoot disease endemic area in Taiwan.”Br. J. Cancer53:399–405.
21.
ChovilA.SutherlandR.B.HallidayM. (1981). “Respiratory cancer in a cohort of nickel sinter plant workers.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 38:327–333.
22.
CornellR.G. (1984). “Mortality patterns around stainless-steel workers” In: Nickel in the Human Environment. Lyon, France: WHO, I ARC Sci. Publ. 53. pp. 65–71.
23.
CornellR.G.LandisJ.R. (1984). “Mortality patterns among nickel/chromium alloy foundry workers.” In: Nickel in the Human Environment. Lyons, France: WHO. IARC Sci. Publ. 53. pp. 87–93.
24.
CostaM.HeckJ.D. (1982). “Specific nickel compounds as carcinogens.”Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 3:408–410.
25.
CoxJ.E.DollR.ScottW.A.SmithS. (1981). “Mortality of nickel workers: Experience of men working with metallic nickel.”Br. J. Ind. Med38:235–239.
26.
CragleD.L.HollisD.R.NewportT.H.ShayC.M. (1984). “A retrospective cohort study among workers occupationally exposed to metallic nickel powder at the Oak Ridge Gaseous Diffusion Plant.” In: Nickel in the Human Environment. Lyons, France: WHO. IARC Sci. Publ. 53. pp. 57–63.
27.
CuzickJ.EvansS.GillmanM.Price-EvansD.A. (1982). “Medicinal arsenic and internal malignancies.”Br. J. Cancer45:904–911.
28.
DemlE.OesterleD. (1985). “Dose-dependent promoting activity of chloroform in rat liver foci bioassay.”Cancer Lett. 29:59–63.
29.
DobsonR.L.YoungM.R.PintoJ.S. (1965). “Palmar keratoses and cancer.”Arch. Dermatol. 92:553–556.
30.
DollR.MathewsJ.D.MorganL.G. (1977). “Cancers of the lung and nasal sinuses in nickel workers. A reassessment of the period of risk.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 34:102–105.
31.
ElinderC.G. (1986). “Other toxic effects.” In: Cadmium and Health: A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal (FreidbergL.ElinderC.G.KjellstromT.NordbergG.F., eds.). Vol. II. Effects and Response. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 159–204.
32.
ElinderC.G.KjellstromT. (1986). “Carcinogenic and genetic effects.” In: Cadmium and Health: A Toxicological and Epidemiological Appraisal (FreidbergL.ElinderC.G.KjellstromT.NordbergG.F., eds.). Vol. II. Effects and Response. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, pp. 205–230.
33.
ElinderC.G.KjellstromT.HogstedtC.AndersonK.SpangG. (1985). “Cancer mortality of cadmium workers.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 42:651–655.
34.
EnterlineP.E.MarshG.M. (1982a). “Cancer among workers exposed to arsenic and other substances in a copper smelter.”Am. J. Epidemiol. 116:925–933.
35.
EnterlineP.E.HendersonV.L.MarshG.M. (1987). “Exposure to arsenic and respiratory cancer. A reanalysis.”Am. J. Epidemiol. 125:929–938.
36.
EschenbrunnerA.B.MillerE. (1945). “Induction of hepatomas in mice by repeated oral administration of chloroform, with observations on sex differences.”J. Natl. Conacer Inst. 5:251–255.
37.
FalkH.CaldwellG.IshakK.G.ThomasL.PopperH. (1981a). “Arsenic-related hepatic angiosarcoma.”Am. J. Ind. Med. 2:43–50.
38.
FalkH.HerbertJ.T.EdmondsL.HeathC.W.ThomasL.B.JrPopperH. (1981b). “Review of four cases of childhood hepatic angiosarcoma elevated environmental arsenic exposure in one case.”Cancer47:382–391.
39.
FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION (FDA). (1977). “Food and Drug Administration.” Total diet studies (7320.08). Compliance Program Evaluation, Bureau of Foods, Washington, D.C.
40.
GoldsmithD.F.SmithA.H.McMichaelA.J. (1980). “A case-control study of prostate cancer within a cohort of rubber and tire workers.”J. Occup. Med. 22:533–541.
41.
GoldsmithJ.R.DeaneM.ThomJ.GentryG. (1972). “Evaluation of health implications of elevated arsenic in well water.”Water Res. 6:1133–1136.
42.
GreavesWav.RomW.N.LyonJ.L. (1981). “Relationship between lung cancer and distance of residence from non-ferrous smelter stack effluent.”Am. J. Ind. Med. 2:15–23.
43.
HarringtonJ.M.MiddaughJ.P.MorseD.L.HousworthJ. (1978). “A survey of a population exposed to high arsenic in well water in Fairbanks, Alaska.”Am. J. Epidemiol. 108:377–385.
44.
HeydornK. (1970). “Environmental variation of arsenic levels in human blood determined by neutron activation analysis.”Clin. Chim. Acta. 28:349–357.
45.
HeywoodR.SortwellR.J.NoelP.R.B.StreetA.E.PrenticeRoeF.J.C.WadsworthP.F.WordenA.N. (1979). “Safety evaluation of toothpaste containing chloroform. III. Long term study in beagle dogs.”J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 2:835–851.
46.
HigginsI.WelchK.BurchfielC. (1982). “Mortality of Anaconda smelter workers in relation to arsenic and other exposures.”Dept. of Epidemiology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
47.
HindmarshJ.T.McCurdyR.F. (1986). “Clinical and environmental aspects of arsenic toxicity.”CRC Crit. Rev. Clin. Lab. Sci. 23:315–347.
48.
HoffmanL.PutzkeH.P.KampehlH.J.RussbueltR.GaseP.SimonnC.ErdmannT.HuckstorfC. (1985). “Carcinogenic effects of cadmium on the prostate of the rat.”J. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 109:193–199.
49.
HoldenH. (1980). “Further mortality studies on workers exposed to cadmium fumes.” Presented at Seminar on Occupational Exposure to Cadmium, London, England. March 20.
50.
HorieA.TanakaI.HaratakeJ.KodamaY.TsuchiyaK. (1985). “Electron microscopy of pulmonary lesions including carcinoma, induces by inhalation exposure of rats to nickleoxide carcinoma, induced by inhalation exposure of rats to nickle oxide aerosol.” In: Progress in Nickle Toxicology. (BrownS.S.SundermanF.W., Jr., eds.). Proceedings of the 3rd International Congress on Nickle Metabolism and Toxicology. Oxford, United Kingdon: Blackwell. pp. 41–44.
51.
HueperW.C. (1958). “Experimental studies in metal carcinogenesis. IX. Pulmonary lesions in guinea pigs and rats exposed to prolonged inhalation of powdered metallic nickel.”Arch. Pathol. 65:600–607.
52.
HumperdinkK. (1968). “Kadmium und Lungenkrebs.”Med. Klin. 63:948. (German).
53.
INTERNATIONAL AGENCY FOR RESEARCH ON CANCER (IARC). (1979). IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of chemicals to humans. Vol. 20: “Some halogenated hydrocarbons.” World Health Organization, Lyon, France, pp. 401–407.
54.
InskipH.BeralV. (1982). “Mortality of Shipham residents: 40-year follow-up.”Lancet (April 17):896–899.
55.
Intergrated Risk Information System (1990). “Integrated information systems.”U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. October 8.
56.
IshinishiN.YamamotoA.HisanagaA.InamasuT. (1983). “Tumorigenicity of arsenic trioxide to the lung in Syrian golden hamsters by intermittent instillations.”Cancer Lett. 21:141–147.
57.
IvankovicS.EisenbrandG.PreussmannR. (1979). “Lung carcinoma induction in BD rats after a single intratracheal instillation of arsenic-containing pesticide mixture formerly used in vineyards.”Int. J. Cancer24:786–788.
58.
Jacobson-KramD.MontalbanoD. (1985). “The reproductive effects assessment group's report on the mutagenicity of inorganic arsenic.”Environ. Mutagen. 7:787–804.
59.
JorgensonT.A.MeierhenryE.F.RushbrookC.J.BullR.J.RobinsonM. (1985). “Carcinogenicity of chloroform in drinking water to male Osborne-Mendel rats and female B6C3F1 mice.”Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 5:760–769.
60.
KasperM.L.SchoenfieldL.StromR.L.TheologidesA. (1984). “Hepatic angiosarcoma and bronchioloalveolar carcinoma induced by Fowler's solution.”JAMA252:3407–3408.
61.
KiplingM.D.WaterhouseJ.A.H. (1967). “Cadmium and prostatic carcinoma.”Lancet1:730.
62.
KjellstromT. (1982). “Mortality and cancer morbidity in people exposed to cadmium.” Report prepared for U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory, Research Triangle Park, N.C. Grant No. R806036101.
63.
KjellstromT.FribergL.RahnsterB. (1979). “Mortality and cancer morbidity among cadmium-exposed workers.”Environ. Health Perspect. 28:199–204.
64.
KlaunigJ.E.RuchR.J.PereiraM.A. (1986). “Carcinogenicity of chlorinated methane and ethane compounds administered in drinking water to mice.”Environ. Health Perspect. 69:89–95.
KolonelL.N. (1976). “Association of cadmium with renal cancers.”Cancer37:1782–1787.
67.
LauwerysR.DewalsP.H. (1981). “Environmental pollution by cadmium and mortality from renal diseases.”Lancet1:383.
68.
LeeA.M.FraumeniJ.F.Jr. (1969). “Arsenic and respiratory cancer in man: An occupational study.”J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 42:1045–1052.
69.
LeeT-C.LeeK.C.TzengY.J.HuahngR.Y.JanK.Y. (1986). “Sodium arsenite potentiates the clastogenicity and mutagenicity of DNA crosslinking agents.”Environ. Mutagen. 8:119–129.
70.
Lee-FeldsteinA. (1983). “Arsenic and respiratory cancer in man: Follow-up of an occupational study.” In: Arsenic: Industrial, Biomedical and Environmental Perspectives (LedererW.FensterheimR., eds.). Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY. pp. 245–265.
71.
Lee-FeldsteinA. (1986). “Cumulative exposure to arsenic and its relationship to respiratory cancer among copper smelter employees.”J. Occp. Med. 28:296–302.
72.
LemenR.A.LeeJ.S.WagonerJ.K.BlejerH.P. (1976). “Cancer mortality among cadmium production workers.”Ann. NY Acad. Sci. 271:273–279.
73.
LevyL.S.ClackJ. (1975). “Further studies on the effect of cadmium on the prostate gland. I. Absence of prostatic changes in rats given oral cadmium sulfate for two years.”Ann. Occup. Hyg. 17:205–211.
74.
LevyL.S.ClackJ.RoeF.J. (1975). “Further studies on the effect of cadmium on the prostate gland. II. Absence of prostatic changes in mice given oral cadmium sulfate for eighteen months.”Ann. Occup. Hyg. 17:213–220.
75.
LoserE. (1980). “A two year oral carcinogenicity study with cadmium on rats.”Cancer Lett. 9:191–198.
76.
LubinJ.H.PotternL.M.BlotW.J.TokudomeS.StoneB.J.FraumeniJ.F.Jr (1981). “Respiratory cancer among copper smelter workers: Recent mortality statistics.”J. Occup. Med. 23:779–784.
77.
MabuchiK.LilienfeldA.M.SnellL.M. (1979). “Lung cancer among pesticide workers exposed to inorganic arsenicals.”Arch. Environ. Health34:312–320.
78.
MagnusK.AnersenA.HogetveitA.C. (1980). “Cancer of respiratory organs among workers at a nickel refinery in Norway.”Int. J. Cancer30:681–685.
79.
MalcolmD. (1972). “Potential carcinogenic effect of cadmium in animals and man.”Ann. Occup. Hyg. 15:33–36.
80.
MatanoskiG.LandauE.TonasciaJ.LazarC.ElliotE.A.McEnroeW. (1981). “Cancer mortality in an industrialized area of Baltimore.”Environ. Res. 25:8–28.
81.
McMichaelA.J.SpirtasR.GambleJ.F.TouseyP.M. (1976). “Mortality among rubber workers: Relationship to specific jobs.”J. Occup. Med. 18:178–185.
82.
MonsonR.R.FineJ.L. (1978). “Cancer mortality and morbidity among rubber workers.”J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 61:1047–1053.
83.
MooreD.H.ChasseaudL.F.MajeedS.K.PrenticeD.E.RoeF.J.C. (1982). “The effect of dose and vehicle on early tissue damage and regenerative activity after chloroform administration to mice.”Food Chem. Toxicol. 20:951–954.
84.
MortonW.StarrG.PholD.StonerJ.WagnerS.WeswigP. (1976). “Skin cancer and water arsenic in Lane County, Oregon.”Cancer37:2523–2532.
85.
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES (NAS). (1975). “Nickel.”National Academy of Sciences. Washington D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 4, 5, 17.
86.
NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE (NCI). (1976). “Report on carcinogenesis bioassay of chloroform.”Bethesda, MD: Carcinogenesis Program, National Cancer Institute.
87.
NelsonW.C.LykinsM.H.MackeyJ.NewillV.A.FinkleaJ.F.HameerD.I. (1973). “Mortality among orchard workers exposed to lead arsenate spray: A cohort study.”J. Chronic Dis. 26:105–118.
88.
NewborneP.M.WeigertJ.KulaN. (1979). “Effects of dietary fat on hepatic mixed-function oxidase and hepatocellular carcinoma induced by affatoxin Baub 1 in rats.”Cancer Res. 39(10): 3986–3991.
89.
NogawaK.KawanoS.NishiM. (1981). “Mortality study of inhabitants in a cadmium-polluted area with special reference to low-molecular-weight proteinuria.” In: Proceedings of the International Conference on Heavy Metals in the Environment (ErnstW.H., ed.). CEP Consultants, Edinburgh, pp. 538–540.
90.
NordbergG.F.AndersenO. (1981). “Metal interactions in carcinogenesis: Enhancement, inhibition.”Environ. Health Perspect. 40:65–81.
91.
NATIONAL TOXICOLOGY PROGRAM (NTP). (1991). Sixth Annual Report on Carcinogens. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
92.
OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY AND HEALTH ADMINISTRATION (OSHA). (1983). “Supplemental statement of reasons for the final rule occupational exposure to inorganic arsenic.”Federal Register48:1894.
93.
OkuiT.FujiwaraY. (1986). “Inhibition of human excision DNA repair by inorganic arsenic and the co-mutagenic effect in V79 Chinese hamster cells.”Mutat. Res. 172:69–76.
94.
OttM.G.HolderB.B.GordonH.L. (1974). “Respiratory cancer and occupational exposure to arsenicals.”Arch. Environ. Health29:250–255.
95.
OttolenghiA.D.HasemanJ.K.PayneW.W.FalkH.L.MacfarlandH.N. (1974). “Inhalation studies of nickle sulfid in pulmonary carcinogenesis of rats.”J. Natl. Inst. 54:1165–1172.
96.
PalmerA.K.StreetA.E.RoeJ.C.RoeF.J.C.WordenA.N. (1979). “Safety evaluation of toothpaste containing chloroform. II. Long term studies in rats.”J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 2:821–833.
97.
PereiraM.A.LinL.C.LippittJ.M.HerrenS.L. (1982). “Trihalomethanes as initiators and promoters of carcinogenesis.”Environ. Health Perspect. 46:151–156.
98.
PershagenG. (1985). “Lung cancer mortality among men living near an arsenic-emitting smelter.”Am. J. Epidemiol. 122:684–694.
99.
PershagenG.BjorklundN.E. (1985). “On the pulmonary tumorigenicity of arsenic trisulfide and calcium arsenate in hamsters.”Cancer Lett. 27:99–104.
100.
PershagenG.NordbergG.BjorklandN.E. (1984a). “Carcinomas of the respiratory tract in hamsters given arsenic trioxide and/or benzo[a]pyrene by the pulmonary route.”Environ. Res. 34:227–241.
101.
PershagenG.NordbergG.BjorklandN.E. (1984b). “Environmental evidence on the pulmonary carcinogenicity of arsenic trioxide.”Arch. Toxicol. Suppl. 7:403–404.
102.
PhilippR. (1985). “Arsenic exposure: Health effects and the risk of cancer.”Rev. Environ. Health5:27–57.
103.
PintoS.S.BennettB.M. (1963). “Effect of arsenic trioxide exposure on mortality.”Arch. Environ. Health7:583–591.
104.
PintoS.S.EnterlineP.E.HendersonV.VarnerM.O. (1977). “Mortality experience in relation to a measured arsenic trioxide exposure.”Environ. Health Perspect. 19:127–130.
105.
PintoS.S.HendersonV.EnterlineP.E. (1978). “Mortality experience of arsenic-exposed workers.”Arch. Environ. Health33:325–331.
106.
PiscatorM. (1981). “Role of cadmium in carcinogenesis with special reference to cancer of the prostate.”Environ. Health Perspect. 40:107–120.
107.
PottsC.L. (1965). “Cadmium proteinuria: The health of battery workers exposed to cadmium oxide dust.”Ann. Occup. Hyg. 8:55–61.
108.
RedmondC.K. (1984). “Site-specific cancer mortality among workers involved in the production of high nickel alloys.” In: Nickel in the Human Environment. Lyons, France: WHO. IARC Scientific Publication 53, pp. 73–86.
109.
RegelsonW.KimU.OspinaJ.HollandJ.F. (1967). “Hemangioendothelial sarcoma of liver from chronic arsenic intoxication by Fowler's solution.”Cancer21:514–522.
110.
ReitzR.H.FoxT.R.QuastJ.F. (1982). “Mechanistic considerations for carcinogenic risk estimation: Chloroform.”Environ. Health Perspect. 46:163–168.
111.
ReitzR.H.QuastJ.F.ScottW.T.WatanabeP.G.GehringP.J. (1980). “Pharmacokinetics and macromolecular effects of chloroform in rats and mice. Implications for carcinogenic risk estimation.”Water Chlorinat. Environ. Impact Health Eff. 3:983–993.
112.
RencherA.C.CarterM.W.McKeeD.W. (1977). “A retrospective epidemiological study of mortality at a large western copper smelter.”J. Occup. Med. 19:754–758.
113.
ReymannF.MollerR.NielsenA. (1978). “Relationship between arsenic intake and internal malignant neoplasms.”Arch. Dermatol. 114:378–381.
114.
RoatJ.W.WaldA.MendelowH.PatakiK.I. (1982). “Hepatic angiosarcoma associated with short-term arsenic ingestion.”Am. J. Med. 73:933–936.
115.
RoeF.J.C.PalmerA.K.WordenA.N. (1979). “Safety evaluation of toothpaste containing chloroform. I. Long-term studies in mice.”J. Environ. Pathol. Toxicol. 2:799–819.
116.
RomW.N.VarleyG.LyonJ.L.ShopkowS. (1982). “Lung cancer among residents living near the El Paso smelter.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 39:269–272.
117.
RossmanT.G. (1981). “Enhancement of UV-mutagenesis by low concentrations of arsenite in E. coli.”Mutat. Res. 91:207–211.
118.
RothF. (1958). “The sequelae of chronic arsenic poisoning in Moselle vintners.”Ger. Med. Mon. 2:172–175.
119.
SandersC.L.MahaffeyJ.A. (1984). “Carcinogenicity of single and multiple intratracheal instillations of cadmium oxide in the rat.”Environ. Res. 33:227–233.
120.
SchroederH.A.MitchenerM. (1975). “Life-term effects of mercury, methyl mercury and nine other trace metals on mice.”J. Nutr. 105:452–458.
121.
SchroederH.A.BalassaJ.J.VintinW.H.Jr. (1964). “Chromium, lead, cadmium, nickel and titanium in mice: Effect on mortality, tumors and tissue levels.”J. Nutr. 83:239–250.
122.
SchroederH.A.BalassaJ.J.VintonW.H.Jr. (1965). “Chromium, cadmium, and lead in rats: Effects on life span, tumors, and tissue levels.”J. Nutr. 86:51–66.
123.
SchroederW.H.DobsonM.KaneD.M.JohnsonN.D. (1987). “Toxic trace elements associated with airborne particulate matter: A review.”JAPCA37:1267–1285.
124.
ShigematsuI.KitamuraS.TakeuchiJ. (1981). “A retrospective mortality study on Cd-exposed populations in Japan.” In: Recent Studies on Health Effects of Cadmium in Japan. The Japan Cadmium Research Committee, Japan Public Health Assoc.Tokyo, p. 303.
125.
SnegireffL.S.LombardO.M. (1951). “Arsenic and cancer. Observations in the metallurgical industry.”Arch. Ind. Hyg. Occup. Med. 4:199–205.
126.
SommersS.C.McManusR.G. (1953). “Multiple arsenical cancers of the skin and internal organs.”Cancer6:347–359.
127.
SorahanT. (1987). “Mortality from lung cancer among a cohort of nickel cadmium battery workers: 1946–1984.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 44:803–809.
128.
SorahanT.WaterhouseJ.A.H. (1983): “Mortality study of nickel-cadmium battery workers by the method of regression models in life tables.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 40:293–300.
129.
SouthwickJ.W.WesternA.E.BeckM.M.WhitleyT.IsaacsR. (1981). “Community health associated with arsenic in drinking water in Millard County, Utah.”Cincinnati, OH: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Health Effects Research Laboratory, EPA-600/1-81-064. NTIS no. PB82–108374.
130.
SundermanF.W.Jr. (1984). “Carcinogenicity of nickel compounds in animals.” In: Nickel in the Human Environment. Lyons, France: WHO, IARC Scientific Publication 53. pp. 127–142.
131.
TakenakaS.OldigesH.KonigH.HochrainerD.OberdosterG. (1983). “Carcinogenicity of cadmium chloride aerosols in W. rats.”J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 70:367–373.
132.
ThunM.J.OsorioA.M.SchoberS.HalperinW.E.LemenR.A. (1989). “Nephropathy in cadmium workers: Assessment of risk from airborne occupational exposure to cadmium.”Br. J. Ind. Med. 46:689–697.
133.
ThunM.J.SchnorrT.M.SmithA. (1985). “Mortality among a cohort of U.S. cadmium production workers—An update.”J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 74:325–333.
134.
TsengW.P.ChuH.M.HowS.W.FongJ.M.LinC.S.YehS. (1968). “Prevalence of skin cancer in an endemic area of chronic arsenicism in Taiwan.”J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 40:453–463.
135.
TumasonicC.F.McMartinD.N.BushB. (1985). “Lifetime toxicity of chloroform and bromodichloromethane when administered over a lifetime in rats.”Ecotoxicol. Environ. Safety9:233–240.
136.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1984). “Health effects assessment for cadmium.”Washington, D.C.: U.S. EPA, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. EPA-540/1-86-038.
137.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1984a). “Health assessment document for inorganic arsenic. Final report.”Research Triangle Park, NC: US EPA, Environmental Criteria and Assessment Office, 2-1-3-22, 9-1-9-4. EPA 600/8-83-021F.
138.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1985a). “U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Health assessment document for chloroform.”Washington, D.C.: Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. EPA/600/8-84-004F. NTIS PB86–105004/XAB.
139.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1985b). “Summary of environmental profiles and hazard indices for constituents of municipal sludge.”Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Water Regulations and Standards, Wastewater Solids Criteria Branch.
140.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1986a). “Evaluation of the potential carcinogenicity of arsenic (7940-38-2) in support of reportable quantity adjustments pursuant to CERCLA Section 102.”Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Health and Environmental Assessment. OHEA C-073-5.
141.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1986b). “Health assessment document for nickel and nickel compounds. Final report.”ORD, OHEA, ECAO-RTP. EPA 600/8-83-012FF. NTIS PB86–232212.
142.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1987). “U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Part II”. Federal Register52:13396–13398, 13402.
143.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1990). “Removal and fate of RCRA and CERCLA toxic organic pollutants in wastewater treatment.”Cincinnati, OH: Risk Reduction Engineering Laboratory, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA/600/S2–89/026.
144.
UNITED STATES ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA). (1991). Health Effects Assessment Summary Tables. OERR 9200.6–303 (91–1).
145.
ValentineJ.L.KangH.K.SpiveyG. (1979). “Arsenic levels in human blood, urine and hair in response to exposure via drinking water.”Environ. Res. 20:24–32.
146.
WehnerA.P.BushR.H.OlsonR.J.CraigD.K. (1975). “Chronic inhalation of nickel oxide and cigarette smoke by hamsters.”Am. In. Hyg. Assoc. J. 36:801–809.
147.
WelchK.HigginsI.OhM.BurchfielC. (1982). “Arsenic exposure, smoking and respiratory cancer in copper smelter workers.”Arch. Environ. Health37:325–335.
148.
WhiteL.D. (1985). “An epidemiological study of cadmium-exposed workers.” Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Joint Conference on Industrial Hygiene and Safety.
149.
WitheyJ.R.CollinsB.T.CollinsP.G. (1983). “Effect of vehicle on the pharmacokinetics and uptake of four halogenated hydrocarbons from the gastrointestinal tract of the rat.”J. Appl. Toxicol. 3:249–253.
150.
YoungT.B.KanarekM.S.TsiatisA.A. (1981). “Epidemiologic study of drinking water chlorination and Wisconsin female cancer mortality.”J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 67:1191–1198.
