The tools used for measuring examination stress have three main limitations: sample selected, sample sizes, and measurement contents. In this study, we constructed the Examination Stress Scale (ExamSS), and 4,717 high school students participated in this research. The results indicate that ExamSS has satisfactory reliability, construct validity, and measurement-invariance validity.
AngR. P.KlassenR. M.ChongW. H.HuanV. S.WongI. Y. F.LeoL. S.KrawchukL. L. (2009). Cross-cultural invariance of the Academic Expectations Stress Inventory: Adolescent samples from Canada and Singapore. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 1225–1237.
2.
BaeJ. K.LeeM. N. (1988). Substance of Korean education: How Korean people think education?Seoul, South Korea: Kyoyouk KwaHak.
3.
BeidelD. C.TurnerS. M.Taylor-FerreiraJ. C. (1999). Teaching study skills and test-taking strategies to elementary school students. Behavior Modification, 123, 630–692.
4.
BusariA. (2011). Validation of Student Academic Stress Scale (SASS). European Journal of Social Sciences, 21, 94–105.
5.
ByrneB. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with Amos: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
CassadyJ. C.JohnsonR. E. (2002). Cognitive test anxiety and academic performance. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 27, 270–295.
7.
ChangC. Y.ChengW. Y. (2008). Science achievement and students’ self-confidence and interest in science: A Taiwanese representative sample study. International Journal of Science Education, 30, 1183–1120.
8.
ChenF. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indexes to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464–504.
9.
CheungG. W.RensvoldR. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 9, 233–255.
10.
CovingtonM. V. (1985). Test anxiety: Causes and effects over time. In van der PloegH. M.SchwarzerR.SpielbergerC. D. (Ed.), Advances in test anxiety research (Vol. 4, pp. 55–68). Lisse, Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger.
11.
CollinsR. (2006). Comparative and historical patterns of education. In HallinanM. T. (Ed.), Handbook of the sociology of education (pp. 213–240). New York, NY: Springer.
12.
CreelH. G. (1964). The beginning of bureaucracy in China: The origin of the Hsien. Journal of Asian Studies, 23, 155–183.
13.
EbelR. L.FrisbieD. A. (1991). Essentials of educational measurement (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
14.
ErdoganA.KesiciS.Sahinİ. (2011). Prediction of high school students’ mathematics anxiety by their achievement motivation and social comparison. Elementary Education Online, 10(2), 646–652.
15.
GrantK. E.BehlingS.GipsonP. Y.FordR. E. (2005). Adolescent stress: The relationship between stress and mental health problems. The Preventive Researcher, 12, 3–6.
16.
HairJ. F.BlackW. C.BabinB. J.AndersonR. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
17.
HasegawaK.ShinoharaC.BroadbentJ. P. (2007). The effects of social expectation on the development of civil society in Japan. Journal of Civil Society, 3, 179–203.
18.
HembreeR. (1988). Correlates, causes, effects, and treatment of test anxiety. Review of Educational Research, 58, 47–77.
19.
HeynemanS. P. (2009). Introduction: The importance of external examinations in education. In VlaardingerbroekB.TaylorN. (Eds.), Secondary school external examination systems. Amherst, NY: Cambria Press.
20.
HodappV.BensonJ. (1997). The multidimensionality of test anxiety: A test of different models. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 10, 219–244.
21.
JacksonD. L. (2003). Revisiting sample size and number of parameter estimates: Some support for the N:q hypothesis. Structural Equation Modeling, 10, 128–141.
22.
KeithN.HodappV.Schermelleh-EngelK.MoosbruggerH. (2003). Cross-sectional and longitudinal confirmatory factor models for the German Test Anxiety Inventory: A construct validation. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 16, 251–270.
23.
KlineR. B. (2010). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
24.
LiebertR. M.MorrisL. W. (1967). Cognitive and emotional components of test anxiety: A distinction and some initial data. Psychological Reports, 20, 975–978.
25.
LazarusR. S.FolkmanS. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. New York, NY: Springer.
26.
LazarusR. S.FolkmanS. (1986). Cognitive theories of stress and the issue of circularity. In AppleyM.TrumbullR. (Eds.), Dynamics of stress (pp. 63–80). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
27.
LeeM.LarsonR. (2000). The Korean examination hell: Long hours of studying, distress, and depression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 249–272.
28.
MandlerG.SarasonS. B. (1952). A study of anxiety and learning. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 47, 166–173.
29.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (2010). Mplus user’s guide (6th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén & Muthén.
30.
PekrunR.GoetzT.PerryR. P.KramerK.HochstadtM.MolfenterS. (2004). Beyond test anxiety: Development and validation of the Test Emotions Questionnaire (TEQ). Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 17, 287–316.
31.
PutwainD. W. (2008). Deconstructing test anxiety. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 13, 141–155.
32.
RaykovT. (2004). Behavioral scale reliability and measurement invariance evaluation using latent variable modeling. Behavior Therapy, 35, 299–331.
33.
ReardonS. F.ArshanN.AtteberryA.KurlaenderM. (2010). Effects of failing a high school exit exam on course taking, achievement, persistence and graduation. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 34, 498–520.
34.
RichmanC. L.BrownK.ClarkM. (1987). Personality changes as a function of minimum competency test success or failure. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 12, 7–16.
35.
SarasonI. G. (1961). Test anxiety and the intellectual performance of college students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, 201–206.
36.
SarasonI. G. (1984). Stress, anxiety, and cognitive interference: Reactions to tests. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 929–938.
37.
SarasonI. G.SarasonB. R. (1990). Test anxiety. In LeitenbergH. (Ed.), Handbook of social and evaluation anxiety (pp. 475–496). New York, NY: Plenum Press.
SeippB. (1991). Anxiety and academic performance: A meta-analysis of findings. Anxiety Research, 4, 27–41.
40.
SpielbergerC. D.GonzalezH. P.TaylorC. J.AntonE. D.AlgazeB.RossG. R.WestberryL. G. (1980). Manual for the Test Anxiety Inventory (Test Attitude Inventory). Redwood City, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.
41.
SuinnR. M. (1969). The STABS, a measure of test anxiety for behavior therapy: Normative data. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 7, 335–339.
42.
StöberJ. (2004). Dimensions of test anxiety: Relations to ways of coping with per-exam anxiety and uncertainty. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 17, 213–226.
43.
StöberL.PekrunR. (2004). Advances in test anxiety research. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 17, 205–211.
44.
SungY. T.TsengF. L.KuoN. P.ChangT. Y.ChiouJ. M. (2014). Evaluating the effects of programs for reducing achievement gaps: A case study in Taiwan. Asia-Pacific Education Review, 15, 99–113. doi:10.1007/s-12564-013-9304-7
45.
TaylorJ.DeaneF. P. (2002). Development of a short form of the Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI). Journal of General Psychology, 129, 127–136.
46.
WangW. L.SungY. T.SungF. C.LuT. H.LiC. Y. (2008). Low birth weight, prematurity, and paternal social status: Impact on the basic competence test in Taiwanese adolescents. Journal of Pediatrics, 153, 333–338.
47.
WorthyD. A.MarkmanA. B.MaddoxW. T. (2009). Choking and excelling under pressure in experienced classifiers. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 71, 924–935.
48.
WrenD. G.BensonJ. (2004). Measuring test anxiety in children: Scale development and internal construct validation. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 17, 227–240.
49.
YerkesR.DodsonJ. (1908). The relation of strength of stimulus to rapidity of habit formation. Journal of Comparative Neurology and Psychology, 18, 459–482.
50.
ZeidnerM. (1998). Test anxiety: The state of the art. New York, NY: Plenum Press.
51.
ZellE.AlickeM. D. (2009). Self-evaluative effects of temporal and social comparison. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 45, 223–227.
