The authors conducted a three-phase, mixed-methods study to develop a self-report measure assessing the unique aspects of minority stress for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender adults. The Daily Heterosexist Experiences Questionnaire has 50 items and nine subscales with acceptable internal reliability, and construct and concurrent validity. Mean sexual orientation and gender differences were found.
AndersonM. K.MavisB. E. (1996). Sources of coming out self-efficacy for lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 32, 37–52.
2.
AndresenE. B.MalmgrenJ. A.CarterW. B.PatrickD. L. (1994). Screening for depression in well older adults: Evaluation of a short form of the CES-D. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 10, 77–84.
3.
BalsamK. F.MohrJ. J. (2007). Adaptation to sexual orientation stigma: A comparison of bisexual and lesbian/gay adults. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 306–319.
4.
BalsamK. F.MolinaY.BeadnellB.SimoniJ.WaltersK. W. (2011). Measuring multiple minority stress: The LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 17, 163–174.
5.
BosH. M. W.van BalenF.van den BoomD. C.SandfortT. G. M. (2004). Minority stress, experience of parenthood and child adjustment in lesbian families. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 22, 291–304.
6.
Ceballos-CapitaineA.SzapocznikJ.BlaneyN. T.MorganR. O.MillonC.EisdorferC. (1990). Ethnicity, emotional distress, stress-related disruption, and coping among HIV seropositive gay males. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 112, 135–152.
7.
ClarkeV.KitzingerC.PotterJ. (2004). “Kids are just cruel anyway”: Lesbian and gay parents’ talk about homophobic bullying. British Journal of Social Psychology, 43, 531–550.
8.
CohenS.KamarckT.MermelsteinR. (1983). A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health & Social Behavior, 24, 385–396.
9.
ConronK. J.MimiagaM. J.LandersJ. D. (2010). A population-based study of sexual orientation identity and gender differences in adult health. American Journal of Public Health, 100, 1953–1960.
10.
CostelloA. B.OsborneJ. W. (2005). Best practices in exploratory factor analysis: Four recommendations for getting the most from your analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 10(7), 1–9.
11.
CrockerJ.MajorB.SteeleC. (1998). Social stigma. In GilbertD.FiskeS. T.LindzeyG. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 504–553). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
12.
D’AugelliA. R.GrossmanA. H. (2001). Disclosure of sexual orientation, victimization, and mental health among lesbian, gay and bisexual older adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 16, 1008–1027.
13.
D’AugelliA. R.HershbergerS. L. (1993). Lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth in community settings: Personal challenges and mental health problems. American Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 421–448.
14.
DiamantA. L.WoldC.SpritzerK.GelbergL. (2000). Health behaviors, health status, and access to and use of health care: A population-based study of lesbian, bisexual, and heterosexual women. Archives of Family Medicine, 9, 1043–1051.
15.
DiPlacidoJ. (1998). Minority stress about lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: A consequence of heterosexism, homophobia, and stigmatizations. In HerekG. (Ed.), Stigma and sexual orientation (pp. 138–159). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
16.
DunbarE. (2006). Race, gender, and sexual orientation in hate crime victimization: Identity politics or identity risk?Violence and Victims, 21, 323–337.
17.
FriedmanC.LeaperC. (2010). Sexual minority college women’s experiences with discrimination: Relations with identity and collective action. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 34, 152–164.
18.
FriskhoppA.SilversteinS. (1996). Straight jobs, gay lives. New York, NY: Touchstone.
19.
GrossmanA. H.D’AugelliA. R.O’ConnellT. S. (2001). Being lesbian, gay, bisexual, and 60 or older in North America. Journal of Homosexuality, 13, 23–40.
20.
HamiltonC. J.MahalikJ. R. (2009). Minority stress, masculinity, and social norms predicting gay men’s health risk behaviors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 132–141.
21.
HammelmanT. L. (1993). Gay and lesbian youth: Contributing factors to serious attempts or considerations of suicide. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Psychotherapy, 2, 77–89.
22.
HarperG. W.SchneiderM. (2003). Oppression and discrimination among lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgendered people and communities: A challenge for community psychology. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31, 243–253.
23.
HarrisonT. W. (2003). Adolescent homosexuality and concerns regarding disclosure. Journal of School Health, 73, 107–112.
24.
HatzenbuehlerM. L.Nolen-HoeksemaS.EriksonS. J. (2008). Minority stress predictors of HIV risk behavior, substance use, and depressive symptoms: Results from a prospective study of bereaved gay men. Health Psychology, 27, 455–462.
25.
HeathM.MulliganE. (2008). “Shiny happy same-sex attracted woman seeking same”: How communities contribute to bisexual and lesbian women’s well-being. Health Sociology Review, 17, 209–302.
26.
HerekG. M. (2002). Heterosexuals’ attitudes toward bisexual men and women in the United States. Journal of Sex Research, 39, 264–274.
27.
HerekG. M. (2009). Hate crimes and stigma-related experiences among sexual minority adults in the United States: Prevalence estimates from a national probability sample. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 24,54–74.
28.
HerekG. M.CapitanioJ. P. (1999). AIDS and sexual prejudice. American Behavioral Scientist, 42, 1126–1143.
29.
HerekG.GillisJ.CoganJ. (1999). Psychological sequelae of hate victimization among lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 945–951.
30.
HetrickE. S.MartinA. D. (1987). Developmental issues and their resolution for gay and lesbian adolescents. Journal of Homosexuality, 14, 25–43.
31.
HiestandK. R.LevittH. M.HorneS. G. (2005, February). Gender identity, internalized homophobia, and feminist identity: Nonheterosexual women’s quest for healthcare. In LevittH. (Moderator), Research on non- heterosexual women’s experiences: Informing future psychological work. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Association for Women in Psychology, Tampa, FL.
32.
HornS. S. (2007). Adolescents’ acceptance of same-sex peers based on sexual orientation and gender expression. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36, 363–371.
33.
KertznerR. M.MeyerI. M.FrostD. M.StirrattM. J. (2009). Social and psychological well-being in lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals: The effects of race, gender, age, and sexual identity. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 79, 500–510.
34.
KingM.SemlyenJ.See TaiS.KillaspyH.OsbornD.PopelyukD.NazarethI. (2008). A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self-harm in lesbian, gay, and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry, 8, 70–87.
35.
KlingerR. L.SteinT. S. (1996). Impact of violence, childhood sexual abuse, and domestic violence and abuse on lesbians, bisexuals, and gay men. In CabajR. P.SteinT. S. (Eds.), The textbook of homosexuality and mental health (pp. 801–818). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
36.
KokenJ. A.BimbiD. S.ParsonsJ. T. (2009). Experiences of familial acceptance-rejection among transwomen of color. Journal of Family Psychology, 23, 853–860.
37.
KroenkeK.SpitzerR. L.WilliamsJ. B. W.MonahanP. O.LöweB. (2007). Anxiety disorders in primary care: Prevalence, impairment, comorbidity, and detection. Annals of Internal Medicine, 146, 317–325.
38.
KuyperL.FokkemaT. (2010). Loneliness among older lesbian, gay, and bisexual adults: The role of minority stress. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 1171–1180.
39.
LandrineH.KlonoffE. A. (1996). The Schedule of Racist Events: A measure of racial discrimination and study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144–168.
40.
LehavotK.SimoniJ. M. (2011). The impact of minority stress on mental health and substance use among sexual minority women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 79, 159–170.
41.
LevittH. M.HorneS. G. (2005, February). She looked like a dyke: The relation between homophobic discrimination and gender expression. In LevittH. (Moderator), Research on non-heterosexual women’s experiences: Informing future psychological work. Symposium conducted at the meeting of the Association for Women in Psychology, Tampa, FL.
42.
LewisR. J.DerlegaV. J.BerndtA.MorrisL. M.RoseS. (2001). An empirical analysis of stressors for gay men and lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 42, 63–88.
43.
LinkB. G.PhelanJ. C. (2001). Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 363–385.
44.
MaysV. M.CochranS. D. (2001). Mental health correlates of perceived discrimination among lesbian, gay and bisexual adults in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 91, 1869–1876.
45.
MeyerI. H. (1995). Minority stress and mental health in gay men. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 38–56.
46.
MeyerI. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.
47.
MohrJ.FassingerR. (2000). Measuring dimensions of lesbian and gay male experience. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 33, 66–90.
48.
MoradiB.WisemanM. C.DeBlaereC.GoodmanM. B.SarkeesA.BrewsterM. E.HuangY.-P. (2010). LGB of color and White individuals’ perceptions of heterosexist stigma, internalized homophobia, outness: Comparisons of levels and links. The Counseling Psychologist, 38, 397–424.
49.
NawynS. J.RichmanJ. A.RospendaK. M.HughesT. L. (2000). Sexual identity and alcohol-related outcomes: Contributions of workplace harassment. Journal of Substance Abuse, 11, 289–304.
50.
NelJ. A.RichE.JoubertK. D. (2004). Lifting the veil: Experiences of gay men in a therapy group. South African Journal of Psychology, 37, 284–306.
51.
NestleJ. (1992). The femme question. In NestleJ. (Ed.), The persistent desire: A femme-butch reader (pp. 138–146). Boston, MA: Alyson.
52.
NoelleM. (2002). The ripple effect of Matthew Shepard murder: Impact on the assumptive worlds of members of the targeted group. American Behavioral Scientist, 46, 27–50.
53.
ParrottD. J.GallagherK. E. (2008). What accounts for heterosexual women’s negative emotional responses to lesbians? Examination of traditional gender role beliefs and sexual prejudice. Sex Roles, 59, 229–239.
54.
PreacherK. J.MacCallumR. C. (2003). Repairing Tom Swift’s electric factor analysis machine. Understanding Statistics, 2, 13–43.
55.
RadkowskyM.SiegelL. J. (1997). The gay adolescent: Stressors, adaptations, and psychosocial interventions. Clinical Psychology Review, 17, 191–216.
56.
RaginsB. R.SinghR.CronwellJ. M. (2007). Making the invisible visible: Fear and disclosure of sexual orientation at work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92, 1103–1118.
57.
RosarioM.HunterJ.GwadzM. (1993). Gay-related Stressful Life Events Measure. Unpublished instrument.
58.
RosarioM.SchrimshawE. W.HunterJ.GwadzM. (2002). Gay-related stress and emotional distress among gay, lesbian, and bisexual youths: A longitudinal examination. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 70, 967–975.
59.
SiegelK.EpsteinJ. A. (1996). Ethnic-racial differences in psychological stress related to gay lifestyle among HIV-positive men. Psychological Reports, 79, 303–312.
60.
SolomonS. E.RothblumE. D.BalsamK. F. (2004). Pioneers in partnership: Lesbian and gay male couples in civil unions compared with those not in civil unions and married heterosexual siblings. Journal of Family Psychology, 18, 275–286.
61.
SwimJ. F.JohnstonK.PearsonN. B. (2009). Daily experiences with heterosexism: Relations between heterosexist hassles and psychological well-being. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28, 597–629.
62.
SzymanskiD. M. (2009). Examining potential moderators of the link between heterosexist events and gay and bisexual men’s psychological distress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 142–151.
63.
SzymanskiD. M.Kashubeck-WestS.MeyerJ. (2008). Internalized heterosexism: Measurement, psychosocial correlates, and research directions. The Counseling Psychologist, 36, 525–574.
64.
SzymanskiD. M.SungM. (2010). Minority stress and psychological distress among Asian American sexual minorities. The Counseling Psychologist, 38, 848–872.
65.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
66.
ThompsonB.DanielL. G. (1996). Factor analytic evidence for the construct validity of scores: A historical overview and some guidelines. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 56, 197–208.
67.
VinckeJ.Van HeeringenK. (2002). Confidant support and the mental wellbeing of lesbian and gay young adults: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology, 12, 181–193.
68.
WaldoC. R. (1999). Working in a majority context: A structural model of heterosexism as minority stress in the workplace. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 46, 218–232.
69.
WeathersF. W.LitzB. T.HermanD. S.HuskaJ. A.KeaneT. M. (1993, October). The PTSD Checklist (PCL): Reliability, validity, and diagnostic utility. Paper presented at the meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, San Antonio, TX.
70.
WoodsJ. D. (1993). The corporate closet: The professional lives of gay men in America. New York, NY: Free Press.
71.
WoodsS. E.HarbeckK. M. (1991). Living in 2 worlds: The identity management strategies used by lesbian physical educators. Journal of Homosexuality, 22, 141–166.
72.
YiH.SandfortT. G. M.ShidloA. (2010). Effects of disengagement coping with HIV risk on unprotected sex among HIV-negative gay men in New York City. Health Psychology, 29, 205–214.
73.
YiH.ShidloA.SandfortT. G. M. (2011). Assessing maladaptive responses to the stress of being at risk of HIV infection among HIV-negative gay men in New York City. Journal of Sex Research, 48, 62–73.
74.
ZamboniB. D.CrawfordI. (2007). Minority stress and sexual problems among African American gay and bisexual men. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 36, 569–578.
