Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) increase youths’ risk for leaving high school before graduating. However, to our knowledge, no one has examined how youth themselves conceptualize the role of ACEs in their journeys away from school. In this exploratory qualitative study, we used narrative analysis to examine (1) whether youth (n = 27) described ACEs leading them away from school, (2) how early these trajectories began, from youth’s own perspectives, and (3) if this varied by elements of identity and social position. Focus groups were conducted with youth ages 18-25 from 13 communities across the U.S. We found that youth described their journeys away from school as starting with early ACEs. We also found that youths’ narratives reflected intersectional gender differences in the pathways away from school that youth described. Girls articulated how ACEs influenced subsequent non-academic priorities; they eventually left or were kicked out due to a lack of credits. Boys expressed that early ACEs were followed by risk behaviors, punishment, and dropout. Implications for healing-centered engagement across settings and targeted dropout prevention are discussed.
AlexanderK. L.EntwisleD. R.KabbaniN. S. (2001). The dropout process in life course perspective: Early risk factors at home and school. Teachers College Record, 103(5), 760–822. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810110300502
2.
AndaR. F.FelittiV. J.BremnerJ. D.WalkerJ. D.WhitfieldC.PerryB. D.DubeS. R.GilesW. H. (2006). The enduring effects of abuse and related adverse experiences in childhood. A convergence of evidence from neurobiology and epidemiology. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 256(3), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00406-005-0624-4
3.
AnyonY.GregoryA.StoneS.FarrarJ.JensonJ. M.McQueenJ.DowningB.GreerE.SimmonsJ. (2016). Restorative interventions and school discipline sanctions in a large urban school district. American Educational Research Journal, 53(6), 1663–1697. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831216675719
4.
Armstrong-CarterE.SiskowskiC.BelkowitzJ.JohnsonC.OlsonE. (2022). Child and adolescent caregiving for family: Emotional, social, physical, and academic risk and individual differences. Journal of Family Psychology. Advance online publication.. https://doi.org/10.1037/fam0000969
5.
AuerspergF.VlasakT.PonocnyI.BarthA. (2019). Long-term effects of parental divorce on mental health: A meta-analysis. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 119, 107–115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2019.09.011
6.
BalfanzR.ByrnesV.FoxJ. (2014). Sent home and put off-track: The antecedents, disproportionalities, and consequences of being suspended in the ninth grade. Journal of Applied Research on Children, 5(2), 1–19.
7.
Baum-TuccilloM.AroraV.HolsteinA.FineM. (2020). And still they rise: Lessons from students in New York City’s alternative transfer high schools. The Public Science Project. https://publicscienceproject.org
8.
Bayaz-ÖztürkG. (2022). Parental breakup and children’s outcomes in the United States. Family Relations. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1111/fare.12662
BernardD. L.CalhounC. D.BanksD. E.HallidayC. A.Hughes-HalbertC.DanielsonC. K. (2021). Making the “C-ACE” for a culturally-informed adverse childhood experiences framework to understand the pervasive mental health impact of racism on Black youth. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 14, 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-020-00319-9
BlumR. W.LiM.Naranjo-RiveraG. (2019). Measuring adverse child experiences among young adolescents globally: Relationships with depressive symptoms and violence perpetration. Journal of Adolescent Health, 65(1), 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2019.01.020
13.
BristolT. J.Martin-FernandezJ. (2019). The added value of Latinx and Black teachers for Latinx and Black students: Implications for policy. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 6(2), 147–153. https://doi.org/10.1177/2372732219862573
CastilloJ. M.CurtisM. J.TanS. Y. (2014). Personnel needs in school psychology: A 10-year follow-up study on predicted personnel shortages. Psychology in the Schools, 51, 832–849. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21786
ChaseN. D. (1999). Burdened children: Theory, research, and treatment of parentification. SAGE Publications.
18.
ChuJ. Y.PorcheM. V.TolmanD. L. (2005). The Adolescent Masculinity Ideology in Relationships Scale: Development and validation of a new measure for boys. Men and Masculinities, 8(1), 93–115. DOI:10.1177/1097184X03257453.
CreswellJ. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry & research design: Choosing among five approaches (3rd ed.). SAGE.
21.
DohrmannE.PorcheM. V.Ijadi-MaghsoodiR.KataokaS. H. (2022). Racial disparities in the education system. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 31(2), 193–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2022.01.001
22.
DongM.AndaR. F.FelittiV. J.DubeS. R.WilliamsonD. F.ThompsonT. J.LooC. M.GilesW. H. (2004). The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(7), 771–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.008
23.
EklundK.MeyerL.WayS.McleanD. (2017). School psychologists as mental health providers: The impact of staffing ratios and Medicaid on service provisions. Psychology in the Schools, 54(3), 279–293. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21996
24.
FaderJ. J.KurlychekM. C.MorganK. A. (2014). The color of juvenile justice: Racial disparities in dispositional decisions. Social Science Research, 44, 126–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2013.11.006
25.
FeldmanN.SilvermanB. (2004). The “let’s talk about it” model–Engaging young people as partners in creating their own mental health program. In RobinsonK. E. (Ed.), Advances in school-based mental health interventions: Best practices and program models (pp. 1–24). Civic Research Institute.
26.
FelittiV. J.AndaR. F.NordenbergD.WilliamsonD. F.SpitzA. M.EdwardsV.KossM. P.MarksJ. S. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults: The adverse childhood experiences (ACE) study. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4), 245–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(98)00017-8
27.
FieldsA. J.CochranS. V. (2011). Men and depression: Current perspectives for health care professionals. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 5(1), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827610378347
28.
FineM.TorreM. E. (2021). Essentials of critical participatory action research. American Psychological Association.
29.
FinkelhorD.ShattuckA.TurnerH.HambyS. (2015). A revised inventory of adverse childhood experiences. Child Abuse & Neglect, 48, 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.07.011
30.
FreudenbergN.RuglisJ. (2007). Reframing school dropout as a public health issue. Preventing Chronic Disease, 4(4), A107.
31.
FryD.FangX.ElliottS.CaseyT.ZhengX.LiJ.FlorianL.McCluskeyG. (2018). The relationships between violence in childhood and educational outcomes: A global systematic review and meta-analysis. Child Abuse & Neglect, 75, 6–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.021
GoodmanR. D. (2015). A liberatory approach to trauma counseling: Decolonizing our trauma-informed practices. In GoodmanR. D.GorskiP. C. (Eds.), Decolonizing “multicultural” counseling through social justice (pp. 55–72). Springer.
36.
GregoryA.ClawsonK.DavisA.GerewitzJ. (2016). The promise of restorative practices to transform teacher-student relationships and achieve equity in school discipline. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 26(4), 325–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474412.2014.929950
37.
GregoryA.SkibaR. J.NogueraP. A. (2010). The achievement gap and the discipline gap: Two sides of the same coin?Educational Researcher, 39(1), 59–68. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x09357621
38.
HickeyG.SmithS.O’SullivanL.McGillL.KennyM.MacIntyreD.GordonM. (2020). Adverse childhood experiences and trauma informed practices in second chance education settings in the Republic of Ireland: An inquiry-based study. Children and Youth Services Review, 118, 105338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.105338
39.
HoG. W. K.ChanA. C. Y.ChienW. T.BressingtonD. T.KaratziasT. (2019). Examining patterns of adversity in Chinese young adults using the Adverse Childhood Experiences—International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ). Child Abuse & Neglect, 88, 179–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.11.009
40.
HollinsW. Q. (2022). Supporting children of incarcerated parents in schools: Foregrounding youth voices to improve educational support. Routledge.
41.
JäggiL. J.MezukB.WatkinsD. C.JacksonJ. S. (2016). The relationship between trauma, arrest, and incarceration history among Black Americans: Findings from the National Survey of American Life. Mental Health and Society, 6(3), 187–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869316641730
42.
KidmanR.SmithD.PiccoloL. R.KohlerH. P. (2019). Psychometric evaluation of the Adversity Childhood Experience International Questionnaire (ACE-IQ) in Malawian adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect, 92, 139–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.03.015
43.
KoS. J.FordJ. D.Kassam-AdamsN.BerkowitzS. J.WilsonC.WongM.BrymerM. J.LayneC. M. (2008). Creating trauma-informed systems: Child welfare, education, first responders, health care, juvenile justice. Professional Psychology Research and Practice, 39(4), 396–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.39.4.3969.4.396
KoslouskiJ. B.StarkK. (2021). Promoting learning for students experiencing adversity and trauma: The everyday, yet profound, actions of teachers. The Elementary School Journal, 121(3), 430–453. https://doi.org/10.1086/712606
46.
KurangaA. T.YussufA. D. (2021). Psychiatric morbidity amongst adolescents in a Nigerian juvenile correctional facility. South African Journal of Psychiatry, 27(1), 1–6. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajpsychiatry.v27i0.1590
47.
LebanL. (2021). The effects of adverse childhood experiences and gender on developmental trajectories of internalizing and externalizing outcomes. Crime and Delinquency, 67(5), 631–661. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011128721989059
48.
LebanL.GibsonC. L. (2020). The role of gender in the relationship between adverse childhood experiences and delinquency and substance use in adolescence. Criminal Justice Journal, 66, 101637. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2019.101637
49.
LebanL.MastersonM. (2022). The impact of childhood school suspension on dropout and arrest in adolescence: Disparate relationships by race and adverse childhood experiences. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 49, 550–569. https://doi.org/10.1177/00938548211041387
50.
LeeL. H.GoodkindS.ShookJ. J. (2017). Racial/ethnic disparities in prior mental health service use among incarcerated adolescents. Children and Youth Services Review, 78, 23–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.04.019
51.
LernerJ. V.PhelpsE.FormanY.BowersE. P. (2009). Positive youth development. In LernerR. M.SteinbergL. (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent psychology: Vol. 1. Individual bases of adolescent development (3rd ed., pp. 524–558). Wiley.
52.
LessardA.Butler-KisberL.FortinL.MarcotteD.PotvinP.Royer. (2008). Shades of disengagement: High school dropouts speak out. Social Psychology of Education: An International Journal, 11(1), 25–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-007-9033-z
LoveH. E.SchlittJ.SoleimanpourS.PanchalN.BehrC. (2019). Twenty years of school-based health care growth and expansion. Health Affairs, 38(5), 755–764. https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2018.05472
55.
MacLeodJ. (2009). Ain’t no makin’ it: Aspirations and attainment in a low-income neighborhood (3rd ed.). Routledge.
56.
MarshallJ. (2010). Street soldier (4th ed.). VisionLine Publishing Co.
57.
McLaughlinK. A.GreenJ. G.GruberM. J.SampsonN. A.ZaslavskyA. M.KesslerR. C. (2012). Childhood adversities and first onset of psychiatric disorders in a national sample of adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(11), 1151–1160. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2277
58.
Medina FalzoneG. (2022). Case studies in social death: The criminalization and dehumanization of six Black and Latino boys. The Urban Review, 54, 233–254. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-021-00617-y
59.
MeekerS. D.EdmonsonS.FisherA. (2008). The voices of high school dropouts: Implications for research and practice. International Journal on School Disaffection, 6, 40–52. https://doi.org/10.18546/ijsd.06.1.07
60.
MerrickM. T.FordD. C.PortsK. A.GuinnA. S.ChenJ.KlevensJ.MetzlerM.JonesC. M.SimonT. R.DanielV. M.OttleyP.MercyJ. A. (2019). Vital signs: Estimated proportion of adult health problems attributable to adverse childhood experiences and implications for prevention - 25 states, 2015-2017. MMWR Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 68, 999–1005. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm6844e1
61.
MilesM. B.HubermanA. M.SaldañaJ. (2020). Qualitative data analysis: A methods sourcebook (4th ed.). SAGE.
62.
MilnerH. R.IVCunninghamH. B.Delale-O’ConnorL.KestenbergE. G. (2019). “These kids are out of control:” Why we must reimagine “classroom management” for equity. Corwin.
63.
MitchellM. B. (2018). “No one acknowledged my loss and hurt”: Non-death loss, grief, and trauma in foster care. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 35(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-017-0502-8
64.
MorrisM. W. (2016). Pushout: The criminalization of Black girls in schools. The New Press.
65.
MorrowA. S.VillodasM. T. (2018). Direct and indirect pathways from adverse childhood experiences to high school dropout among high-risk adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 28(2), 327–341. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12332
66.
MortonM. H.DworskyA.MatjaskoJ. L.CurryS. R.SchlueterD.ChávezR.FarrellA. F. (2018). Prevalence and correlates of youth homelessness in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(1), 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2017.10.006
PanJ.ZaffJ. F.PorcheM. V. (2020). Social support, childhood adversities, and academic outcomes: A latent class analysis. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 25(3), 251–271. https://doi.org/10.1080/10824669.2019.1708744
69.
PatilP. A.PorcheM. V.ShippenN. A.DallenbachN. T.FortunaL. R. (2018). Which girls, which boys? The intersectional risk for depression by race and ethnicity, and gender in the U.S. Clinical Psychology Review, 66, 51–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2017.12.003
70.
PerryB. D.PollardR. (1998). Homeostasis, stress, trauma, and adaption: A neurodevelopmental view of childhood trauma. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 7(1), 33–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1056-4993(18)30258-x
71.
PollackS.FusoniM. (2005). Moving beyond icebreakers: An innovative approach to group facilitation, learning and action. Center for Teen Empowerment.
72.
PorcheM. V.FortunaL. R.LinJ.AlegriaM. (2011). Childhood trauma events and psychiatric disorders as correlates of school dropout in a national sample of young adults. Child Development, 82, 982–998. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01534.x
73.
Pufall JonesE.MistryJ. (2010). Navigating across cultures: Narrative constructions of lived experience. Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research, 4, 151–167.
74.
QSR International. (2018). NVivo 12.
75.
ReisnerS. L.WhiteJ. M.BradfordJ. B.MimiagaM. J. (2014). Transgender health disparities: Comparing full cohort and nested matched-pair study designs in a community health center. LGBT Health, 1(3), 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2014.0009
76.
RiessmanC. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. SAGE.
77.
RobertsD. E. (2012). Prison, foster care, and the systemic punishment of Black mothers. UCLA Law Review, 59, 1474–1500.
78.
RomeroV. E.RobertsonR.WarnerA. (2018). Building resilience in students impacted by adverse childhood experiences: A whole-staff approach. Corwin.
SchillingE. A.AseltineR. H.GoreS. (2007). Adverse childhood experiences and mental health in young adults: A longitudinal survey. BMC Public Health, 7(30), 30.
82.
ShamblinS.GrahamD.LucasE. (2020). Creating holistic trauma-informed schools: School-based health centers. In ReardonR. M.LeonardJ. (Eds.), Alleviating the educational impact of adverse childhood experiences: School-university-community collaboration (pp. 309–330). Information Age Publishing.
83.
ShonkoffJ. P.GarnerA. S., The Committee on Psychosocial Aspects of Child and Family Health, Committee on Early Childhood, Adoption, and Dependent Care, & Section on Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics. (2012). The lifelong effects of early childhood adversity and toxic stress. Pediatrics, 129(1), e232–e246.
84.
SickmundM.SladkyT. J.KangW.PuzzancheraC. (2021). Easy access to the census of juveniles in residential placement. from: http://www.ojjdp.gov/ojstatbb/ezacjrp
SnappS. D.HoenigJ. M.FieldsA.RussellS. T. (2015). Messy, butch, and queer: LGBTQ youth and the school-to-prison pipeline. Journal of Adolescent Research, 30(1), 57–82. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558414557625
87.
StruckS.Stewart-TufescuA.AsmundsonA. J. N.AsmundsonG. G. J.AfifiT. O. (2021). Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) research: A bibliometric analysis of publication trends over the first 20 years. Child Abuse & Neglect, 112, 104895. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2020.104895
88.
TheriotM. T. (2009). School resource officers and the criminalization of student behavior. Criminal Justice Journal, 37(3), 280–287.
89.
TopitzesJ. (2014). Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs), high school dropout and crime: Extending the study of ACE effects beyond health outcomes and with mediation analyses [Conference session]. The Society for Social Work and Research 2014 Annual Conference, San Antonio, TX.
90.
Torres-PagánL.TerepkaA. (2020). School-based health centers during academic disruption: Challenges and opportunity in urban mental health. Psychological Trauma Theory Research Practice and Policy, 12(S1), S276–S278. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000611
91.
UnwinH. J. T.HillisS.CluverL.FlaxmanS.GoldmanP. S.ButchartA.BachmanG.RawlingsL.DonnellyC. A.RatmannO.GreenP.NelsonC. A.BlenkinsopA.BhattS.DesmondC.VillavecesA.SherrL. (2022). Global, regional, and national minimum estimates of children affected by COVID-19-associated orphanhood and caregiver death, by age and family circumstance up to Oct 31, 2021: An updated modelling study. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 6(4), 249–259. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2352-4642(22)00005-0
U.S. Government Accountability Office. (2016). K-12 education: Better use of information could help agencies identify disparities and address racial discrimination. https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-16-345
95.
WadeR.Jr.CronholmP. F.FeinJ. A.ForkeC. M.DavisM. B.Harkins-SchwarzM.PachterL. M.Bair-MerrittM. H. (2016). Household and community-level adverse childhood experiences and adult health outcomes in a diverse urban population. Child Abuse & Neglect, 52, 135–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.11.021
WhitneyD. G.PetersonM. D. (2019). US national and state-level prevalence of mental health disorders and disparities of mental health care use in children. JAMA Pediatrics, 173(4), 389–391. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.5399
99.
WildemanC.EmanuelN. (2014). Cumulative risks of foster care placement by age 18 for U.S. children, 2000-2011. PLoS One, 9(3), e92785. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092785
100.
WirbackT.ForsellY.LarssonJ.-O.EngströmK.EdhborgM. (2018). Experiences of depression and help-seeking described by young Swedish men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 19(3), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000110
YoonS.QuinnC. R.Shockley McCarthyK.RobertsonA. A. (2021). The effects of child protective services and juvenile justice system involvement on academic outcomes: Gender and racial differences. Youth & Society, 53(1), 131–152.
103.
ZaffJ. F.AaslandK.McDermottE.CarvalhoA.JosephP.Pufall JonesE. (2016a). Exploring positive youth development among young people who leave school without graduating high school: A focus on social and emotional competencies. Qualitative Psychology, 3(1), 26–45. https://doi.org/10.1037/qup0000044
104.
ZaffJ. F.Pufall JonesE.DonlanA. E.AndersonS. (2016b). Comprehensive community initiatives creating supportive youth systemis: A theoretical rationale for creating youth-fociused CCIs. In ZaffJ. F.Pufall JonesE.DonlanA. E.AndersonS. (Eds.), Comprehensive community initiatives for positive youth development (pp. 1–12). Routledge.
105.
Zeller-BerkmanS.BarretoJ.SandlerA. (2020). Amplifying action: Theories, questions, doubts, and hopes related to the “action” phase of a critical participatory action research process. Harvard Educational Review, 90(2), 229–242. https://doi.org/10.17763/1943-5045-90.2.229
106.
ZouZ.MengH.MaZ.DengW.DuL.WangH.ChenP.HuH. (2013). Executive functioning deficits and childhood trauma in juvenile violent offenders in China. Psychiatry Research, 207(3), 218–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2012.09.013
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
