Special education and school psychology researchers have demonstrated that consultation can be effective. Yet, practitioner surveys suggest it is used infrequently. What accounts for this research-to-practice gap? We argue that consultation is effective and unused for the same reason: It is an educational technology. That is, whereas its developers have perfected a methodical and replicable problem-solving process that draws on an armamentarium of validated interventions, this very model and related methods are viewed as out of step with the zeitgeist of school reform. We explore this unfortunate irony and propose several modest recommendations.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alpert, J., & Yammer, M. (1983). Research in school consultation: A content analysis of selected journals. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 14, 604–612.
2.
Ball, D. L. (1995). Blurring the boundaries of research and practice. Remedial and Special Education, 16, 354–363.
3.
Bolin, F. S. (1989). Empowering leadership. Teachers College Record, 91(1), 81–96.
4.
Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy. (1986). A nation prepared: Teachers for the 21st century. Washington, DC: Author.
5.
The Council for Exceptional Children. (1991, October). Essential skills for teachers: Collaboration (Research and Resources on Special Education No. 30). Reston, VA: Author.
6.
Delquadri, J., Greenwood, C. R., Whorton, D., Carta, J. J., & Hall, R. V. (1986). Classwide peer tutoring. Exceptional Children, 52, 535–542.
7.
Donahoe, T. (1993). Finding the way: Structure, time, and culture in school improvement. Phi Delta Kappan, 75, 298–305.
8.
Egner, A., & Lates, B. J. (1975). The Vermont Consulting Teacher Program: Case presentation. In C. A. Parker (Ed.), Psychological consultation: Helping teachers meet special needs (pp. 31–53). Reston, VA: The Council for Exceptional Children.
9.
Flugum, K. R., & Reschly, D. J. (1994). Prereferral interventions: Quality indices and outcomes. Journal of School Psychology, 32, 1–14.
10.
Friend, M. (1985). Training special educators to be consultants: Considerations for developing programs. Teacher Education and Special Education, 8, 115–120.
11.
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (1988). Mainstream Assistance Teams to accommodate difficult-to-teach students in general education. In J. L. Graden, J. E. Zins, & M. J. Curtis (Eds.), Alternative educational delivery systems: Enhancing instructional options for all students (pp. 49–70). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
12.
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (1989). Exploring effective and efficient prereferral interventions: A component analysis of Behavioral Consultation. School Psychology Review, 18, 260–283.
13.
Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Harris, A. H., & Roberts, P. H. (in press). Bridging the research-to-practice gap with Mainstream Assistance Teams: A cautionary tale. School Psychology Quarterly.
14.
Gersten, R., Carnine, D., & White, W. A. T. (1984). The pursuit of clarity: Direct instruction and applied behavior analysis. In W. L. Heward, T. E. Heron, D. S. Hill, & J. Trap-Porter (Eds.), Focus on behavior analysis in education (pp. 38–57). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
15.
Gersten, R., Morvant, M., & Brengelman, S. (1995). Close to the classroom is close to the bone: Coaching as a means to translate research into classroom practice. Exceptional Children, 62, 52–66.
16.
Gersten, R., Vaughn, S., Deshler, D., & Schiller, E. (1995). What we know (and still don't know) about utilizing research findings to improve practice: Implications for special education. Unpublished manuscript.
17.
Gettinger, M. (1995). Maximizing the usefulness of educational research through practitioner-researcher collaboration. The School Psychologist, 50(1), 15–16.
18.
Giroux, H. A. (1988). Teachers as intellectuals: Toward a critical pedagogy of learning. Granby, MA: Bergin & Garvey.
19.
Glang, A., Gersten, R., & Morvant, M. (1994). A directive approach toward the consultation process: A case study. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 9(4), 225–233.
20.
Goldberg, M. F. (1996). Here for the long haul: An interview with Theodore Sizer. Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 685–687.
21.
Goldenberg, C., & Gallimore, R. (1991). Local knowledge, research knowledge, and educational change: A case study of early Spanish reading improvement. Educational Researcher, 20(8), 2–14.
22.
Gottlieb, J., Alter, M., Gottlieb, B. W., & Wishner, J. (1994). Special education in urban America: It's not justifiable for many. The Journal of Special Education, 27, 453–465.
23.
Graden, J. L. (1989). Redefining “prereferral” intervention as intervention assistance: Collaboration between general and special education. Exceptional Children, 56, 227–231.
24.
Greenwood, C. R., Carta, J. J., & Hall, R. V. (1988). The use of peer tutoring strategies in classroom management and educational instruction. School Psychology Review, 17, 258–275.
25.
Gresham, F. M., & Kendell, G. K. (1987). School consultation research: Methodological critique and future directions. School Psychology Review, 16, 306–316.
26.
Guthrie, J. W. (1986). School-based management: The next needed education reform. Phi Delta Kappan, 68, 305–309.
27.
Hamilton, M. L., & Richardson, V. (1995). Effects of the culture in two schools on the process and outcomes of staff development. Elementary School Journal, 95, 367–385.
28.
Huefner, D. S. (1988). The consulting teacher model: Risks and opportunities. Exceptional Children, 54, 403–414.
29.
Idol-Maestas, L., & Ritter, S. (1985). A follow-up study of resource/consulting teachers: Factors that facilitate and inhibit teacher consultation. Teacher Education and Special Education, 8, 121–131.
30.
Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Showers, B. (1992). Models of teaching (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
31.
Kratochwill, T. R., Elliott, S. N., & Rotto, P.C. (1995). Best practices in school-based behavioral consultation. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-III (pp. 519–535). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
32.
Kratochwill, T. R., & Van Someren, K. R. (1985). Barriers to treatment success in behavioral consultation: Current limitations and future directions. Journal of School Psychology, 23, 225–239.
33.
MAGI Educational Services. (1995, July). Results of a statewide research study on the effects of class size in special education (Report prepared for the New York State Education Department, Office of Vocational and Educational Services for Individuals with Disabilities). Rye, NY: Author. (Available from the State Education Department, The University of the State of New York—Albany, Office of Vocational and Educational Services for Individuals with Disabilities, Albany, NY 12234)
34.
Malouf, D. B., & Schiller, E. P. (1995). Practice and research in special education. Exceptional Children, 61, 414–424.
35.
McCarthey, S. J., & Peterson, P. L. (1989, March). Teacher roles: Weaving new patterns in classroom practice and school organization. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
36.
McLaughlin, M. (1990). The Rand Change Agent Study revisited: Macro perspectives and micro realities. Educational Researcher, 19(9), 11–16.
37.
Meyers, J., Pitt, N.W., Gaughan, E. J., & Freidman, M. P. (1978). A research model for consultation with teachers. Journal of School Psychology, 16, 137–145.
38.
Murphy, J. (1991). Restructuring schools: Capturing and assessing the phenomena. New York: Teachers College Press.
39.
Pogrow, S. (1996). Reforming the wannabe reformers: Why education reforms almost always end up making things worse. Phi Delta Kappan, 77, 656–663.
40.
Polsgrove, L., & McNeil, M. (1989). The consultation process: Research and practice. Remedial and Special Education, 10, 6–13, 20.
41.
Pugach, M. C., & Johnson, L. J. (1989). Prereferral interventions: Progress, problems, and challenges. Exceptional Children, 56, 217–226.
42.
Pugach, M. C., & Johnson, L. J. (1995). Collaborative practitioners, collaborative schools. Denver: Love.
43.
Reschly, D. J., & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1995). School psychology paradigm shift. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-III (pp. 17–31). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
44.
Sickler, J. L. (1988). Teachers in charge: Empowering the professionals. Phi Delta Kappan, 69, 354–356, 375–376.
45.
Slavin, R. E., Madden, N. A., Dolan, L. J., Wasik, B. A., Ross, S. M., & Smith, L. J. (1994). “Whenever and wherever we choose”: The replication of “Success for All.”Phi Delta Kappan, 75, 639–640, 642–647.
46.
West, J. F., & Idol, L. (1987). School consultation (Part 1): An interdisciplinary perspective on theory, models, and research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 388–408.
47.
Wilson, M. S., & Reschly, D. J. (1995). Gender and school psychology: Issues, questions, and answers. School Psychology Review, 24, 45–61.
48.
Wilson, R. (1987, November 25). Education Department official in charge of research thrives on controversy while seeking to bolster field. The Chronicle of Higher Education, pp. A18–19, A22.
49.
Zins, J. E., & Erchul, W. P. (1995). Best practices in school consultation. In A. Thomas & J. Grimes (Eds.), Best practices in school psychology-III (pp. 609–623). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists.
