WITH THE GOAL OF ACHIEVING A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE NATURE AND INFLUENCE OF GENDER ON STUDENTS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION, THIS REVIEW FOCUSES FIRST ON THE LITERATURE RELATED TO GENDER DISPARITIES IN THE GENERAL POPULATION. THE ISSUES ADDRESSED COVER BOTH EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT OUTCOMES, WITH SPECIAL ATTENTION DEVOTED TO CURRENT INTERVENTIONS THAT ARE DESIGNED TO REDUCE THE DISPARITIES. THE REVIEW FURTHER EXAMINES THE LITERATURE ON GENDER AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO STUDENTS IN SPECIAL EDUCATION, INCLUDING (A) OVERALL GENDER RATES BY DISABILITY GROUPS, (B) GENDER DISPARITIES IN EDUCATION AND EMPLOYMENT OUTCOMES ASSOCIATED WITH MALES AND FEMALES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION, AND (C) PROPOSED INTERVENTION PROGRAMS AND PRACTICES THAT APPEAR PROMISING. THE ARTICLE CONCLUDES BY DISCUSSING IMPLICATIONS FOR SPECIAL EDUCATION AND RESEARCH THAT CAN REDUCE THE INCIDENCE OF GENDER DIFFERENCES IN SPECIAL EDUCATION.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Baker, M. (1987). Sex differences in human performance.Chichester, New England: Wiley.
2.
Bauer, A. (1989). Teaching exceptional students in your classroom.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
3.
Benz, M., & Halpern, A. (1993, Fall). Vocational and transition services needed and received by students with disabilities during their last year of high school. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 16, 197--211.
4.
Blackhurst, E., & Berdine, W. (1993). An introduction to special education (3rd ed.). New York: HarperCollins.
5.
Brophy, J., & Good, T. (1970). Teachers' communication of differential expectations for children's classroom performance: Some behavioral data. Journal of Educational Psychology, 61, 365--374.
6.
Brusselmans-Dehairs, C., & Henry, G. (1994). Gender and mathematics. International Journal of Educational Research, 21(4), 353--359.
7.
Cameto, R. (1993). Support services provided by secondary schools. In M. Wagner (Ed.), The secondary school programs of students with disabilities (pp. 6:1--6:42). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
8.
Crandall, V., Katkovsky, W., & Preston, A. (1972). Motivational and ability determinants of young children's intellectual achievement behaviors. Child Development, 33, 643--661.
9.
Edgar, E., Levine, P., Levine, R., & Dubey, M. (1988). Washington State follow along studies 1983--1987 students in transition final report. Seattle: University of Washington, Experimental Education Unit, Networking and Evaluation Team.
10.
Fagot, B. (1977). Influence of teacher behavior in the preschool. Developmental Psychology, 9, 198--206.
11.
Fulton, S., & Sabornie, E. (1994). Evidence of employment inequality among females with disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 28, 149--165.
12.
Gillespie, P. H., & Fink, A. H. (1974). The influence of sexism on the education of handicapped children. Exceptional Children, 41, 155--162.
13.
Goals 2000: Educate America Act of 1994. (P.L. 103--227). 108 Stat. 125.
14.
Grant, T. (1994, August 28). Raised expectations. The Boston Sunday Globe, pp. 29, 34.
15.
Greenberger, E., & Steinberg, L. (1983). Sex differences in early labor force experience: Harbinger of things to come. Social Forces, 62, 467--486.
16.
Hanna, G. (1994). Cross-cultural gender differences in mathematics education. International Journal of Educational Research, 21(4), 417--438.
17.
Haring, K., & Lovett, D. (1990). A follow-up study of special education graduates. The Journal of Special Education, 23, 463--477.
18.
Haring, K., Lovett, D., & Smith, D. (1990). A follow-up study of recent special education graduates of learning disabilities programs. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 108--113.
19.
Harnisch, D. (1984). Females and mathematics: A cross-national perspective. Advances in Motivation and Achievement, 2, 73--91.
20.
Hasazi, S., Gordon, L., & Roe, C. (1985). Factors associated with the employment status of handicapped youth exiting high school from 1979 to 1983. Exceptional Children, 51, 455--469.
21.
Hasazi, S., Gordon, L., Roe, C., Hull, M., Finck, K., & Salembier, G. (1985). A statewide follow-up on post high school employment and residential status of students labeled, “mentally retarded.”Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 20, 222--234.
22.
Hasazi, S., Johnson, R., Hasazi, L., Gordon, L., & Hull, M. (1989). Employment of youth with and without handicaps following high school: Outcomes and correlates. The Journal of Special Education, 23, 243--255.
23.
Hawley, W. (1990, May). Enhancing the federal government's capacity to support the improvement of education through research and development. Educational Researcher, 19(4), 17--22.
24.
Heal, L., & Rusch, F. (1995). Predicting employment for students who leave special education high school programs. Exceptional Children, 61, 472--487.
25.
Hobbs, N. (1975). The futures of children.San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Kaplan, P. (1988). The human odyssey: Life-span development.St. Paul, MN: West.
28.
Kerr, B. (1985). Smart girls, gifted women: Special guidance concerns. Roeper Review, 8, 30--33.
29.
Klein, S., & Ortman, P. (1994, November). Continuing the journey toward gender equity. Educational Researcher, 23(8), 13--21.
30.
Koretz, G. (1990, December 24). Women still earn less, but they've come a long way, Business Week, p. 14.
31.
Kos, R. (1993). Karen: An interaction of gender role and reading disability. In R. Donmoyer & R. Kos (Eds.), At-risk students (pp. 111--117). New York: State University of New York Press.
32.
Ladky, A., & Bennett, A. (1994, Spring). Career links--Women employed. Equal Means, 2(2), 14--16.
33.
Leinhardt, G., Seewald, A., & Zigmond, N. (1982). Sex and race differences in learning disabilities classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74, 835--843.
34.
Lerner, J. (1988). Learning disabilities--Theories, diagnosis, and teaching strategies (5th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
35.
Levander, M. (1992, April 12). Expanding girls' scientific horizons. The Boston Sunday Globe, p. A37.
36.
Levine, P., & Edgar, E. (1995, December/January). An analysis by gender of long-term postschool outcomes for youth with and without disabilities. Exceptional Children, 61, 282--300.
37.
Matlin, M. (1987). The psychology of women.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
38.
McGinness, D. (1985). When children don't learn.New York: Basic Books.
39.
Mincer, J. (1990, January). Education and unemployment of women. (Technical paper no. 10). New York: National Center on Education and Employment at Teachers College, Columbia University and The Rand Corp.
40.
Mithaug, D., Horiuchi, C., & Fanning, P. (1985). A report on the Colorado statewide follow-up survey of special education students. Exceptional Children, 51, 397--404.
41.
Morgan, S. (1979). The learning disabilities population: Why more boys than girls? A hot area for research. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 8, 211--213.
42.
National Center for Education Statistics. (1994, March). Annual earnings of young adults.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research & Improvement.
43.
National Coalition of Advocates for Students. (1985). Barriers to excellence: Our children at risk.Boston: Author.
44.
Noble, K. (1987). The dilemma of the gifted woman. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 11, 367--378.
45.
Norman, C., & Zigmond, N. (1980, December). Characteristics of children labeled and served as learning disabled in school systems affiliated with child service demonstration centers. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 13, 16--21.
46.
O'Neill, J. (1990, November/December). Women and wages. The American Enterprise, pp. 25--33.
47.
Peltz, W. (1990, December). Can girls + science - stereotypes = success. The Science Teacher, 57, 44--49.
48.
Powers, L. (1994). Promoting adolescent independence and self-determination. Family-Centered Care Network, 10(4), 1, 15--16.
49.
Price, R., Cioci, M., Penner, W., & Trautlein, B. (1993). Webs of influence: School and community programs that enhance adolescent health and education. Teachers College Record, 94, 487--521.
50.
Rhee, N. (1994, Spring). Taking our daughters towards a better future. Equal Means, 2(2), 4--8.
51.
Russo, N., & Jansen, M. (1988). Women, work, and disability: Opportunities and challenges. In M. Fine & A. Asch (Eds.), Women with disabilities (pp. 229--244). Philadelphia: Temple University Press.
52.
Sadker, M., Sadker, D., & Steindam, S. (1989). Gender equity and educational reform. Educational Leadership, 46(6), 44--47.
53.
Salend, S. (1994). Effective mainstreaming: Creating inclusive classrooms (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
54.
Schalock, R., Holl, C., Elliott, B., & Ross, I. (1992). A longitudinal follow-up of graduates from a rural special education program. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, 29--38.
55.
School-to-Work Opportunities Act of 1994 (PL. 103--239). 20 U.S.C. 6101 1sT et seq.
56.
Scuccimarra, D., & Speece, D. (1990, April). Employment outcomes and social integration of students with mild handicaps: The quality of life two years after high school. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 213--219.
57.
Shea, T., & Bauer, A. (1994). Learners with disabilities.Madison, WI: Brown & Benchmark.
58.
Sitlington, P. L. (1989a). Iowa statewide follow-up study: Adult adjustment of individuals with mental disabilities 1 year after leaving school.Des Moines: Iowa Department of Education.
59.
Sitlington, P. L. (1989b). Iowa statewide follow-up study: Individuals with learning disabilities out of school 1 year.Des Moines: Iowa Department of Education.
60.
Sitlington, P. L. (1990a). Iowa statewide follow-up study: Adult adjustment of individuals with behavior disorders 1 year after leaving school.Des Moines: Iowa Department of Education.
61.
Sitlington, P. L. (1990b). Iowa statewide follow-up study: Adult adjustment of individuals with mild disabilities 1 year after leaving school.Des Moines: Iowa Department of Education.
62.
Sitlington, P., & Frank, A. (1990, Spring). Are adolescents with learning disabilities successfully crossing the bridge into adult life?Learning Disability Quarterly, 13, 97--111.
63.
Sitlington, P., & Frank, A. (1993). Success as an adult--Does gender make a difference for graduates with mental disabilities?Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 16(2), 171--182.
64.
Sitlington, P., Frank, A., & Cooper, L. (1989). Iowa statewide follow-up study: Changes in the adult adjustment of individuals with learning disabilities 1 year after leaving school.Des Moines: Iowa Department of Education.
65.
Sitlington, P., Frank, A., & Carson, R. (1990). Iowa statewide follow-up study: Adult adjustment of individuals with behavior disorders 1 year after leaving school.Des Moines: Iowa Department of Education.
66.
Sivard, R. L. (1985) Women … a world survey.Washington, DC: World Priorities.
67.
Smith, C. (1991). Learning disabilities. The interaction of learner, task, and setting.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
68.
Stromquist, N. (1993, Winter). Sex-equity legislation in education: The state as promoter of women's rights. Review of Educational Research, 63, 379--407.
69.
U.S. Department of Education. (1990). Digest of education statistics.Washington, DC: Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
70.
U.S. Department of Education. (1992). Fourteenth annual report to Congress on the implementation of IDEA.Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs.
71.
U.S. Department of Labor. (1987, June). Workforce 2000.Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.
72.
Valdes, K. A., Williamson, C. L., & Wagner, M. M. (1990). The National Longitudinal Transition Study of special education students, statistical almanac, Vol. 1: Overview, Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
73.
Veum, J., & Weiss, A. (1993, April). Education and the work histories of young adults. Monthly Labor Review, pp. 11--20.
74.
Wagner, M. (1988, April). The transition of hearing impaired students from secondary school to adulthood: Eudcation, employment and independence. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New Orleans, LA.
75.
Wagner, M. (1992, April). Being female--A secondary disability? Gender differences in the transition experiences of young people with disabilities. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco.
76.
Wagner, M. (1993, December). What have we learned about the secondary school programs of students with disabilities? In M. Wagner (Ed.), The secondary school programs of students with disabilities (pp. 7:1--7:17). Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
77.
Wagner, M., Newman, L., D'Amico, R., Jay, E. D., Butler-Nalin, P., Marder, C., & Cox, R. (Eds.). (1991). Youth with disabilities: How are they doing? The first comprehensive report from the National Longitudinal Transition Study of Special Education Students.Menlo Park, CA: SRI International.
78.
Walberg, H. (1969). Physics, femininity, and creativity. Developmental Psychology, 1, 47--54.
79.
Wellesley College Center for Research on Women. (1992). The AAUW report: How schools shortchange girls.Washington, DC: American Association of University Women.
80.
Whitney, D. Q. (1994a, August 28). Dartmouth program helps young women to become leaders. The Boston Sunday Globe, pp. 13--14.
81.
Whitney, D. Q. (1994b, November 20). New course helps girls build their self-esteem. The Boston Sunday Globe, pp. 16, 19.
82.
Zetlin, A., & Hosseini, A. (1989). Six postschool case studies of mildly learning handicapped young adults. Exceptional Children, 55, 405--411.
83.
Zetlin, A., & Murtaugh, M. (1990). Whatever happened to those with borderline IQs?American Journal on Mental Retardation, 94, 463--469.
