Mainstreaming of mildly handicapped students from special to general classes is a controversial and contemporary issue. Despite a number of important difficulties, mainstream classes are considered to be the most appropriate placement for mildly handicapped students. The value of group instruction as a method of achieving effective mainstreaming is discussed in relation to its potential for developing social skills, providing a framework for instruction, and ensuring a link between the special and general class. Within the framework for instruction, three specific group instruction techniques are examined: cooperative learning, peer tutoring, and reciprocal teaching. It is argued that mainstreaming skill training should commence in the special class, and culminate in those skills being applied and supported in a general classroom learning environment. Group teaching strategies may serve as an effective, transportable framework in which to achieve effective mainstreaming.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Bender, W.N. (1986). Effective educational practices in the mainstream setting: Recommended model for evaluation of mainstream teacher classes. The Journal of Special Education, 20, 457–487.
2.
Biklen, D. (1985). Achieving the complete school: Strategies for effective mainstreaming. New York: Teachers College Press.
3.
Brendt, T.J. (1981). Relations between social cognition, nonsocial cognition, and social behavior: The case of friendship. In J.H. Flavell & L. Ross (Eds.), Social cognitive development (pp. 176–199). Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
4.
Brophy, J.E. (1979). Teacher behavior and its effects. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71, 733–750.
5.
Carlberg, C., & Kavale, K. (1980). The efficacy of special versus regular class placement for exceptional children: A meta-analysis. The Journal of Special Education, 14, 295–309.
6.
Cherkes-Julkowski, M., Gertner, N., & Norlander, K. (1986). Differences in cognitive processes among handicapped and average children: A group learning approach. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 438–445.
7.
Cohen, P.A., Kulik, J.A., & Kulik, C.C. (1982). Educational outcomes of tutoring: A meta-analysis of findings. American Educational Research Journal, 19, 237–248.
8.
Collins, M.K. (1984). Integration in Victorian education. Melbourne: Government Printer.
9.
Conway, R.N.F. (1986). Teaching strategies in special education: A continual challenge in all learning environments. The New South Wales Journal of Special Education, 6, 11–16.
10.
Ellis, E.S. (1986). The role of motivation and pedagogy on the generalization of cognitive strategy training. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 19, 66–70.
11.
Friend, M. (1984). Consulting skills for resource teachers. Learning Disability Quarterly, 7, 246–250.
12.
Goodman, G. (1979). From residential treatment to community based education: A model for reintegration. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 14, 95–100.
13.
Gottlieb, J. (1982). A point of view. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 17, 79–82.
14.
Gottlieb, J., & Leyser, Y. (1981). Facilitating the social mainstreaming of retarded children. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 1(4), 57–69.
15.
Gow, L., Snow, D., Balla, J., & Hall, J. (1987). Report to the Commonwealth Schools Commission on integration in Australia (Vols. 1--5). Canberra: Commonwealth Schools Commission.
16.
Gresham, F.M. (1982). Misguided mainstreaming: The case for social skills training with handicapped children. Exceptional Children, 48, 422–433.
17.
Handleman, J.S, & Harris, S.L. (1983). A comparison of one-to-one versus couplet instruction with autistic children. Behavioral Disorders, 9, 22–26.
18.
Horne, M. (1983). Attitudes of elementary classroom teachers towards mainstreaming. Exceptional Child, 30, 93–98.
Idol, L., & West, J.F. (1987). Consultation in special education (Part II): Training and practice. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 474–497.
21.
Jenkins, J.R., & Jenkins, L.M. (1982). Cross-age and peer tutoring. Reston, VA: Council for Exceptional Children.
22.
Johnson, J.L., Flanagan, K., Burge, M.E., Kaufman-Debriere, S., & Spellman, C.R. (1980). Interactive individualized instruction with small groups of severely handicapped students. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 15, 230–237.
23.
Kehle, T.J., & Barclay, J.R. (1979). Social and behavioral characteristics of mentally handicapped children. Research and Development in Education, 12, 46–56.
24.
Kehle, T.J., & Guidubaldi, J. (1978). Effects of EMR placement models on affective and social development. Psychology in the Schools, 15, 275–282.
25.
Ladd, G.W. (1981). Effectiveness of a social learning method for enhancing children's social interaction and peer acceptance. Child Development, 52, 171–178.
26.
Lovitt, T., Rudsit, J., Jenkins, J., Pious, C., & Benedetti, D. (1986). Adapting science materials for regular and learning disabled seventh graders. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 31–39.
27.
Madden, N.A., & Slavin, R.E. (1983). Mainstreaming students with mild handicaps: Academic and social outcomes. Review of Educational Research, 53, 519–569.
28.
Meichenbaum, D. (1980, October). Teaching thinking: A cognitive-behavioral perspective. Paper presented at NIE-IRDC Conference, Pittsburgh, PA.
29.
Munson, S.M. (1986). Regular education teacher modifications for mainstreamed mildly handicapped students. The Journal of Special Education, 20, 489–502.
30.
Osguthorpe, R.T., & Scruggs, T.E. (1986). Special education students as tutors: A review and analysis. Remedial and Special Education, 7(4), 15–26.
31.
Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1984). Reciprocal teaching of comprehension fostering and monitoring activities. Cognition and Instruction, 1, 117–175.
32.
Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1986). Interactive teaching to promote independent learning from text. Reading Teacher, 39, 771–777.
33.
Palincsar, A.S., & Brown, A.L. (1988). Teaching and practicing thinking skills to promote comprehension in the context of group problem solving. Remedial and Special Education, 9 (1), 53–59.
34.
Palincsar, A.S., Brown, A.L., & Martin, S. (in press). Exploration of a process to mediate peer interaction in reading comprehension instruction. Educational Psychologist.
35.
Polloway, E.A. (1984). The integration of mildly retarded students in the schools: A historical review. Remedial and Special Education, 5(4), 18–28.
36.
Polloway, E.A., Cronin, M.E., & Patton, J.R. (1986). The efficacy of group versus one-to-one instruction: A review. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 22–30.
37.
Polloway, E.A., & Smith, J.D. (1983). Changes in mild mental retardation: Population, programs, and perspectives. Exceptional Children, 50, 149–159.
38.
Quay, H.C. (1966). Empirical-experimental approach to the nature and remediation of conduct disorders of children. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 021 896)
39.
Reese-Dukes, J.L., & Stokes, E.H. (1978). Social acceptance of elementary educable mentally retarded pupils in the regular classroom. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 13, 356–361.
40.
Sabornie, E.J. (1985). Social mainstreaming of handicapped students: Facing an unpleasant reality. Remedial and Special Education, 6(2), 12–16.
41.
Salend, S.G., & Lutz, J.C. (1984). Mainstreaming or mainlining: A competency based approach to mainstreaming. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 27–29.
42.
Samuels, S.J., & Miller, N.L. (1985). Failure to find attention differences between learning disabled and normal children on classroom and laboratory tasks. Exceptional Children, 51, 358–375.
43.
Slavin, R.E., Madden, N.A., & Leavey, M. (1984). Effects of cooperative learning and individualized instruction on main-streamed students. Exceptional Children, 50, 434–443.
44.
Stevens, R., & Rosenshine, B. (1981). Advances in research on teaching. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 2, 1–90.
45.
Strain, P. (1981). The utilization of classroom peers as behavior change agents. New York: Plenum Press.
46.
Strain, P.S., Odom, S.L., & McConnell, S. (1984). Promoting social reciprocity of exceptional children: Identificatin, target behavior selection, and intervention. Remedial and Special Education, 5(1), 21–28.
47.
Strain, P.S., & Shores, R.E. (1983). A reply to “Misguided Mainstreaming.”Exceptional Children, 50, 271–273.
48.
Sutherland, J.H., Algozzine, R., Ysseldyke, J.E., & Freeman, S. (1983). Changing peer perceptions: Effects of labels and assigned attributes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 16, 217–220.
49.
Truesdell, L.A. (1985, April). Making it in the mainstream: Special education student behavior and academic success. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago.
50.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
51.
Webb, N.M. (1982). Student interaction learning in small groups. Review of Educational Research, 52, 421–445.
52.
West, J.F., & Idol, L. (1987). School consultation (Part I): An interdisciplinary perspective on theory, models, and research. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 20, 388–408.
53.
Zigmond, N., Levin, E., & Laurie, T.E. (1985). Managing the mainstream: An analysis of teacher attitudes and student performance in mainstream high school programs. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 18, 535–541.
