California, a state rich in special education tradition, has experimented with a variety of approaches to eligibility and placement of children with learning or behavior disorders. These policies and procedures are discussed with reference to their impact in determining which children are actually served under the categories of mental retardation, learning disabilities, and emotional disturbance, as defined in Public Law 94--142. Major differences in growth or decrease of children served exist in these three categories between California and national figures. A special education “no man's land,” perhaps unique to California, may be emerging in that current policies may lead to even greater numbers of children no longer eligible for special education.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Analysis and Comment. (1982). Proposed Title 5, CAC Regulations; Eligibility criteria for special education and related services. Journal, California Council for Exceptional Children, 32, 4–5.
2.
Arreola v. Board of Education, 160--577, Orange County Superior Court (March, 1968).
3.
Barnes, T. & Forness, S. (1982). Learning characteristics of children and adolescents with various psychiatric diagnoses. Monograph in Behavioral Disorders, 5, 32–41.
4.
Bryan, T. (1982). Social skills of learning disabled children and youth: An overview. Learning Disability Quarterly, 5, 332–333.
5.
California State Department of Education. (1974). California master plan for special education. Sacramento: Office of State Printing.
6.
California State Department of Education (1983a). Information concerning eligibility criteria. Sacramento: Author.
7.
California State Department of Education. (1983b). A manual for the determination of a severe discrepancy. Sacramento: Author.
8.
California Department of Mental Health. (1982). Report to the legislature on services to emotionally disturbed children (AB 2315). Sacramento, CA.
9.
Cantwell, D. P., Baker, L., & Mattison, R. (1979). The prevalence of psychiatric disorder in children with speech and language disorders: An epidemiological study. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 18, 450–461.
10.
Cone, T. E., & Wilson, L. (1981). Quantifying a severe discrepancy: A critical analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 4, 359–371.
11.
Covarrubias v. San Diego Unified School District, 70--394, District Court for Southern California (February, 1971).
12.
Daniel Hoffman v. the New York City Board of Education, 2nd 121, New York State of Appeals Court (December, 1979).
13.
Danielson, L. C., & Bauer, J. N. (1978). A formula-based classification of learning disabled children: An examination of the issues. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 4, 163–176.
14.
Data File. (1983a). Public elementary/secondary school enrollment of handicapped students. Education of the Handicapped: Bi-weekly News Service. (Arlington, VA: Capitol Publications), 9(15), 4.
15.
Data File. (1983b). Students in programs for learning disabled. Education of the Handicapped: Bi-weekly News Service. (Arlington, VA: Capitol Publications), 9(14), 4.
16.
Diana v. State Board of Education, C-70 37, District Court of Northern California (February, 1970).
17.
Erickson, M. T. (1975). The Z-score discrepancy method for identifying reading disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 8, 308–312.
18.
Federal Register (1977a, August 23). 42474--42518.
19.
Federal Register (1977b, December 29). 65083--65087.
20.
Forness, S. (1972). The mildly retarded as casualties of the educational system. Journal of School Psychology, 10, 117–126.
21.
Forness, S. (1976). Behavioristic orientation to categorical labels. Journal of School Psychology, 14, 90–96.
22.
Forness, S. (1979). Clinical criteria for mainstreaming mildly handicapped children. Psychology in the Schools, 16, 508–514.
23.
Forness, S. (1983). Diagnostic schooling for children or adolescents with behavior disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 8, 150–164.
24.
Forness, S., Bender, M., Gardner, T., Lynch, E., Rotberg, J., & Urbano, R. (1983). Interagency linkages to public schools: A national survey. Education and Treatment of Children, 6, 193–202.
25.
Forness, S., & Cantwell, D. (1982). DSM III psychiatric diagnoses and special education categories. Journal of Special Education, 6, 49–63.
26.
Forness, S., Guthrie, D., & MacMillan, D. (1981). Classroom behavior of mentally retarded children across different classroom settings. Journal of Special Education, 15, 497–508.
27.
Forness, S., & Kavale, K. (1983a). Remediation of reading disabilities: 1. Issues and concepts. Learning Disabilities, 2, 141–152.
28.
Forness, S., & Kavale, K. (1983b). Remediation of reading disabilities: 2. Classification and approaches. Learning Disabilities, 2, 153–164.
29.
Forness, S., Sinclair, E., & Guthrie, D. (1983). Learning disability discrepancy formulas: Their use in actual practice. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 107–114.
30.
Forness, S., Sinclair, E., & Russell, A. (1984). Education of children with behavior disorders: Implications for public policy. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 54, 22–37.
31.
Grosenick, J. K., & Huntze, S. L. (1980). National needs analysis in behavioral disorders; Severe behavior disorders. Department of Special Education, University of Missouri-Columbia.
32.
Hansen, P. A. (1970). Children called EH. Journal, California Council for Exceptional Children, 20, 5–12.
33.
Heller, K. A., Holtzman, W. H., & Messick, S. (1982). Placing children in special education: A strategy for equity. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
34.
Howell, K., Kaplan, J., & O'Connell, C. (1979). Evaluating exceptional children. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
35.
Iowa State Department of Public Instruction. (1984). The Iowa model for assessment in behavioral disorders. Des Moines: Author.
36.
Kaufman, M. E., & Alberto, P. A. (1976). Research on efficacy of special education for mentally retarded. In N. Ellis (Ed.), International Review of Research in Mental Retardation (Vol. 8, pp. 225–256). New York: Academic Press.
37.
Keogh, B. K., Becker, L. D., Kukic, M., & Kukic, S. (1972). Programs for EH and EMR pupils: Review and recommendations. (Tech. Rep.) Los Angeles: University of California.
38.
Keogh, B. K., & Levitt, M. L. (1976). Special education in the mainstream: A confrontation of limitations?Focus on Exceptional Children, 8, 1–11.
39.
Lambert, N. M. (1981). Psychological evidence in Larry P. v. Wilson Riles: An evaluation by a witness for the defense. American Psychologist, 36, 937–952.
40.
Larry P. v. Riles, 343--1306, District Court for Northern California (July, 1972).
41.
Los Angeles Unified School District. (1981). A handbook for parents of individuals with exceptional needs. Los Angeles: Author.
42.
MacMillan, D. L. (1972). Decertification of EMRs: Problems and paradoxes. Journal, California Council for Exceptional Children, 21, 3–8.
43.
MacMillan, D. L., & Meyers, C. E. (1980). Larry P.: An educational interpretation. School Psychology Review, 9, 136–148.
44.
MacMillan, D. L., Meyers, C. E., & Morrison, G. M. (1980). System-identification of mildly mentally retarded children: Implications for interpreting and conducting research. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 85, 108–115.
45.
Mercer, J. R., & Lewis, J. P. (1973). Labeling the mentally retarded. Berkeley: University of California Press.
46.
Meyers, C. E., MacMillan, D. L., & Yoshida, R. K. (1978). Validity of psychologists' identification of EMR students in the perspective of the California decertification experience. Journal of School Psychology, 16, 3–15.
47.
Osman, B. (1982). No one to play with: The social side of learning disabilities. New York: Random House.
48.
Parents in Action on Special Education v. Joseph P. Hannon, 74C 3586, District Court for Illinois (September, 1980).
49.
Shepherd, L. A., & Smith, M. L. (1983). An evaluation of the identification of learning disabled students in Colorado. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 115–127.
50.
Sinclair, E. (1980). Relationship of psychoeducational diagnosis to educational placement. Journal of School Psychology, 18, 349–353.
51.
Sinclair, E., Forness, S., & Alexson, J. (in press). Psychiatric diagnosis: A study of its relationship to school needs. Journal of Special Education.
52.
Sontag, E. (1983). Number of handicapped students leveling off [Interview]. Education of the Handicapped: Bi-weekly News Service (Arlington, VA: Capitol Publications), 9(13), 1–3.
53.
Special report. (1976). An overview of certification for the education profession under the Ryan Act. Sacramento: Association of California School Administrators.
54.
Tarjan, G., & Forness, S. (1979). Disturbances of intellectual functioning. In G. Usdin & J. Lewis (Eds.), Psychiatry in general practice (pp. 498–577). New York: McGraw-Hill.
55.
Tucker, J. A. (1980). Ethnic proportions in classes for the learning disabled: Issues in nonbiased assessment. Journal of Special Education, 14, 93–105.
56.
U.S. Department of Education. (1983). Fifth annual report to Congress on implementation of Public Law 94--142: The education for all handicapped act. Washington, DC: Special Education Programs.
57.
Yoshida, R. K., MacMillan, D. L., & Meyers, C. E. (1976). The decertification of minority group EMR students in California: Its historical background and assessment of student achievement and adjustment. In R. L. Jones (Ed.), Mainstreaming and the minority child (pp. 62–75). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota, Leadership Training Institute.
