The use of criterion-referenced measurement has recently been extended from paper-and-pencil tests to observational recording procedures. While numerous authorities discuss procedures for collecting and reporting observational data, little attention has been given to the issue of data interpretation. The present paper explores this issue by examining and illustrating techniques for visually inspecting graphically displayed data. These procedures may assist the educator in determining the impact of intervention procedures on learner performance.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Aloia, G. F. (1975). Effects of physical stigmata and labels on judgments of subnormality by preservice teachers. Mental Retardation, 13(6), 17–21.
2.
Blackman, G., & Silberman, A. (1980). Modification of child and adolescent behavior.Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
3.
Cartwright, C. A., & Cartwright, G. P. (1974). Developing observation skills.New York: McGraw-Hill.
4.
Cooper, J. O. (1981). Measuring behavior.Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
5.
Foster, G., & Keech, V. (1977). Teacher reactions to the label of educable mentally retarded. Education and Training of the Mentally Retarded, 12(4), 307–311.
6.
Fowier, S. A., & Baer, D. M. (1981). “Do I have to be good all day?” The timing of delayed reinforcement as a factor in generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 14, 13–24.
7.
Gardner, W. I. (1969). Use of punishment procedures with the severely retarded: A review. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 74, 86–103.
8.
Gardner, W. I. (1977). Learning and behavior characteristics of exceptional children and youth: A humanistic behavioral approach.Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
9.
Gottlieb, J. (1974). Attitudes toward retarded children: Effects of labeling and academic performance. American Journal of Mental Deficiency, 79(3), 268–273.
10.
Hall, R. V. (Ed.). (1971). Managing behavior modification: The measurement of behavior.Lawrence, KS: H & H Enterprises.
11.
Hersen, M. & Barlow, D. H. (1976). Single case experimental designs.New York: Pergamon.
12.
Howell, K. W., Kaplan, J. S., & O'Connell, C. Y. (1979). Evaluating exceptional children.Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
13.
Kazdin, A. E. (1977). Assessing the clinical or applied importance of behavior change through social validation. Behavior Modification, 1(4), 427–449.
14.
Kazdin, A. E. (1982). Single-case research designs: Methods for clinical and applied settings.New York: Oxford University Press.
15.
Kazdin, A. E., & Matson, J. L. (1981). Social validation in mental retardation. Applied Research in Mental Retardation, 2, 39–53.
16.
Koegel, R. L., & Rincover, A. (1977). Research on the difference between generalization and maintenance in extra-therapy responding. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 1–12.
17.
Martin, G., & Pear, J. (1978). Behavior modification: What it is and how to do it.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
18.
Salvia, J. & Ysseldyke, J. E. (1978). Assessment in special and remedial education.Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
19.
Stokes, T. F., & Baer, D. M. (1977) An implicit technology of generalization. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 10, 349–367.
20.
Sulzer-Azaroff, B., & Mayer, G. R. (1977). Applying behavior-analysis procedures with children and youth.New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
21.
Wehman, P., Abramson, M., & Norman, C. (1977). Transfer of training in behavior modification programs: An evaluative review. The Journal of Special Education, 11, 217–231.
22.
Weinberg, R. A., & Wood, F. H. (1975). Observation of pupils and teachers in mainstream and special education settings: Alternative strategies.Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
23.
White, O. R., & Haring, N. G. (1980). Exceptional teaching (2nd ed.). Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill.
24.
Wolf, M. M. (1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement—Or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11, 203–214.
