Social and Emotional Intervention Research as Justice: A Case for Accountability

Abstract

The field of special education is recognized for conducting research designed to improve the quality of life for the children and families we serve. However, our field has been criticized for empirical approaches that are inconsistent with the values and beliefs we articulate as central to our scientific practice. As such, a shift in our research endeavors is warranted. Given the specific calls within early childhood special education for research programs that consider the marginalized experiences of children and families, we posit five guidelines to reframe social and emotional intervention research in early childhood special education as justice-oriented. These guidelines are (a) understand the historical and immediate context of research participants; (b) incorporate best practices in social and emotional assessment to reduce bias; (c) center children’s and families’ voices in social validity measures; (d) address confounding variables to fidelity of implementation; and (e) examine diversity in research team composition.

Keywords

evidence-based practice emotional & behavioral disorders exceptionalities issues social skills

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adams

N. B.

McGuire

S. N.

Meadan

Martin

M. R.

Terol

A. K.

Haidar

Fanta

A. S.

(2021). Impact of challenging behavior on marginalized and minoritized caregivers of children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214211052087

American Psychological Association. (2021, October). Apology to people of color for APA’s role in promoting, perpetuating, and failing to challenge racism, racial discrimination, and human hierarchy in U.S. Retrieved from https://www.apa.org/about/policy/resolution-racism-apology.pdf

Artiles

A. J.

(2019). Fourteenth annual brown lecture in education research: Reenvisioning equity research: Disability identification disparities as a Case in Point. Educational Researcher, 48(6), 325–335. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X19871949

Artman-Meeker

Fettig

Barton

E. E.

Penney

Zeng

(2015). Applying an evidence-based framework to the early childhood coaching literature. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 35(3), 183–196. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121415595550

Barton

E. E.

Fettig

(2013). Parent-implemented interventions for young children with disabilities: A review of fidelity features. Journal of Early Intervention, 35(2), 194–219. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815113504625

Barton

E. E.

Fuller

E. A.

Schnitz

(2016). The use of email to coach preservice early childhood teachers. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 36, 78–90. https://doi.org/10.1177/027112141561272

Barton

E. E.

Meadan-Kaplansky

Ledford

J. R.

(2018). Independent variables, fidelity, and social validity. In Ledford

J. R.

Gast

D. L.

(Eds.), Single case research methodology (pp. 133–156). Routledge.

Blake

J. J.

Butler

B. R.

Lewis

C. W.

Darensbourg

(2011). Unmasking the inequitable discipline experiences of urban Black girls: Implications for urban educational stakeholders. The Urban Review, 43(1), 90–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-009-0148-8

Blanchard

B. S.

Newton

R. J.

Didericksen

K. W.

Daniels

Glosson

(2021). Confronting racism and bias within early intervention: The responsibility of systems and individuals to influence change and advance equity. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 41, 6–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121421992470

10.

Blanchett

W. J.

Klingner

J. K.

Harry

(2009). The intersection of race, culture, language, and disability: Implications for urban education. Urban Education, 44(4), 389–409. https://doi.org/10.1177/00420859093386

11.

Blewitt

Fuller-Tyszkiewicz

Nolan

Bergmeier

Vicary

Huang

. . . Skouteris

(2018). Social and emotional learning associated with universal curriculum-based interventions in early childhood education and care centers: A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Network Open, 1(8), Article e185727. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2018.5727

12.

Bourke

(2014). Positionality: Reflecting on the research process. The Qualitative Report, 19, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2014.1026

13.

Bowman

N. R.

(2018). Looking backward but moving forward: Honoring the sacred and asserting the sovereign in indigenous evaluation. American Journal of Evaluation, 39(4), 543–568. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjpe.68914

14.

Buchanan

D. R.

Miller

F. G.

Wallerstein

(2007). Ethical issues in community-based participatory research: Balancing rigorous research with community participation in community intervention studies. Progress in Community Health Partnerships: Research, Education, and Action, 1(2), 153–160. https://doi.org/10.1353/cpr.2007.0006

15.

Cabrera

(2013). Positive development of minority children. Society for Research in Child Development. http://www.srcd.org/sites/default/files/documents/washington/spr_272_final.pdf

16.

Castro-Olivo

Preciado

Marciante

Garcia

(2018). The effects of culturally adapted version of first steps to success for Latino English language learners: Preliminary pilot study. Psychology in the Schools, 55(1), 36–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22092

17.

Chronicle of Higher Education. (2022). Race, ethnicity, and gender of full-time faculty members at more than 3,300 institutions. https://www.chronicle.com/article/race-ethnicity-and-gender-of-full-time-faculty/

18.

Chow

J. C.

Morse

Zhao

Kingsbery

Murray

Soni

(2022). A systematic review of characteristics of students with emotional disturbance in special education research. Remedial and Special Education, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193252211258

19.

Clayback

K. A.

Hemmeter

M. L.

(2021). Exclusionary discipline practices in early childhood settings: A survey of child care directors. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 55, 129–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.11.002

20.

Cokley

Awad

G. H.

(2013). In defense of quantitative methods: Using the “master’s tools” to promote social justice. Journal for Social Action in Counseling and Psychology, 5(2), 26–41. https://doi.org/10.33043/JSACP.5.2.26-41

21.

Cook

B. G.

Odom

S. L.

(2013). Evidence-based practices and implementation science in special education. Exceptional Children, 79(2), 135–144. https://doi.org/10.1177/00144029130790020

22.

Cooper

J. O.

Heron

T. E.

Heward

W. L.

(2020). Applied behavior analysis (3rd ed.). Pearson.

23.

Council for Exceptional Children. (2020). Ensuring a safe and positive climate in school and community settings for children and youth with disabilities. https://exceptionalchildren.org/sites/default/files/2020-11/School%20Climate%20-%202020.pdf

24.

Darling-Churchill

K. E.

Lippman

(2016). Early childhood social and emotional development: Advancing the field of measurement. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 45, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2016.02.002

25.

deBettencourt

L. U.

Hoover

J. J.

Rude

H. A.

Taylor

S. S.

(2016). Preparing special education higher education faculty: The influences of contemporary education issues and policy recommendations. Teacher Education and Special Education, 39(2), 121–133. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406416641007

26.

De Los Reyes

Thomas

S. A.

Goodman

K. L.

Kundey

S. M. A

. (2013). Principles underlying the use of multiple informants’ reports. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 123–149. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185617

27.

Dieker

Wienke

Straub

Finnegan

(2014). Reflections on recruiting, supporting, retaining, graduating, and obtaining employment for doctoral students from diverse backgrounds. Teacher Education and Special Education, 37(2), 147–160. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406413505874

28.

Division for Early Childhood. (2014). DEC recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood special education 2014. http://www.decsped.org/recommendedpractices

29.

Dumas

M. J.

Ross

K. M.

(2016). “Be real black for me” imagining BlackCrit in education. Urban Education, 51(4), 415–442. https://doi.org/10.1177/0042085916628611

30.

Dunst

C. J.

Espe-Sherwindt

(2016). Family-centered practices in early childhood intervention. In Reichow

Boyd

Barton

Odom

(Eds.), Handbook of early childhood special education (pp. 37-55). Springer.

31.

Felder

Barker

(2013). Extending Bell’s concept of interest convergence: A framework for understanding the African American doctoral student experience. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 8, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.28945/1754

32.

Fish

R. E.

(2019). Standing out and sorting in: Exploring the role of racial composition in racial disparities in special education. American Educational Research Journal, 56(6), 2573–2608. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831219847966

33.

Fox

Dunlap

Hemmeter

M. L.

Joseph

G. E.

Strain

P. S.

(2003). The teaching pyramid: A model for supporting social competence and preventing challenging behavior in young children. Young Children, 58, 48–52.

34.

Freedle

Wahman

C. L.

(2022). Understanding families’ experiences raising young children with challenging behavior through an ecological lens: A qualitative meta-synthesis. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 42, 269–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214211036924

35.

Gilliam

W. S.

Maupin

A. N.

Reyes

C. R.

Accavitti

Shic

(2016). Do early educators’ implicit biases regarding sex and race relate to behavior expectations and recommendations of preschool expulsions and suspensions. Yale University Child Study Center, 9(28), 1–16.

36.

Gómez

J. M.

Caño

Baltes

B. B.

(2021). Who are we missing? Examining the graduate record examination quantitative score as a barrier to admission into psychology doctoral programs for capable ethnic minorities. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 15(3), 211–218. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000336

37.

Graves

S. L.

Blake

Kim

E. S.

(2012). Differences in parent and teacher ratings of preschool problem behavior in a national sample: The significance of gender and SES. Journal of Early Intervention, 34(3), 151–165. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815112461833

38.

Graves

S. L.

Phillips

Jones

Johnson

(2021). A systematic review of the What Works Clearinghouse’s behavioral intervention evidence: Does it relate to Black children. Psychology in the Schools, 58(6), 1026–1040. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22485

39.

Graves

S. L.

Sobalvarro

Nichols

Ryan

Aston

Blefari

Schutte

Schachner

Vicoria

Prier

(2017). Examining the effectiveness of a culturally adapted social emotional intervention for African American males in an urban setting. School Psychology Quarterly, 32(1), 62–74. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000145

40.

Green

A. L.

Lewis

T. J.

Olsen

A. A.

(2020). General education teachers’ use of evidence-based practices: Examining the role of student race and risk status. Behavioral Disorders, 45(3), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742919883570

41.

Gregory

Clawson

Davis

Gerewitz

(2016). The promise of restorative practices to transform teacher-student relationships and achieve equity in school discipline. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 26(4), 325–353. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474412.2014.929950

42.

Halle

(2019). Avoiding the humdrum: Recommendations for improving how we conceptualize and assess social validity in ECSE. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 39(3), 139–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121419873525

43.

Halle

T. G.

Darling-Churchill

K. E.

(2016). Review of measures of social and emotional development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 45, 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121419873525

44.

Halle

T. G.

Zaslow

Wessel

Moodie

Darling-Churchill

K. E.

(2011). Understanding and choosing assessments and developmental screeners for young children: Profiles of selected measures. Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED566870.pdf

45.

Hannes

(2011). Chapter 4: Critical appraisal of qualitative research. In Noyes

Booth

Hannes

Harden

Harris

Lewin

Lockwood

(Eds.), Supplementary guidance for inclusion of qualitative research in Cochrane systematic reviews of interventions (Version 1, updated August 2011). Cochrane Collaboration Qualitative Methods Group.

46.

Harry

Klingner

(2014). Why are so many minority students in special education? Teachers College Press.

47.

Heal

N. A.

Hanley

G. P.

(2011). Embedded prompting may function as embedded punishment: Detection of unexpected behavioral processes within a typical preschool teaching strategy. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 44(1), 127–131.

48.

Hemmeter

M. L.

Fox

Snyder

Algina

Hardy

J. K.

Bishop

Veguilla

(2021). Corollary child outcomes from the Pyramid Model professional development intervention efficacy trial. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 54, 204–218. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2020.08.004

49.

Hemmeter

M. L.

Snyder

P. A.

Fox

Algina

(2016). Evaluating the implementation of the Pyramid Model for promoting social-emotional competence in early childhood classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 36(3), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121416653386

50.

Heyman

Poulakos

Upshur

Wenz-Gross

(2018). Discrepancies in parent and teacher ratings of low-income preschooler’s social skills. Early Child Development and Care, 188(6), 759–773. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2016.1236257

51.

Hill

Conceição

S. C.

(2020). Program and instructional strategies supportive of doctoral students’ degree completion. Adult Learning, 31(1), 36–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/1045159519887529

52.

Hilliard

A. G

. (1992). The pitfalls and promises of special education practice. Exceptional Children, 59(2), 168–172. https://doi:10.1177/001440299205900210

53.

Hubley

A. M.

Zumbo

B. D.

(2011). Validity and the consequences of test interpretation and use. Social Indicators Research, 103(2), 219–230. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9843-4

54.

Iruka

I. U.

(2020). Using a social determinants of early learning framework to eliminate educational disparities and opportunity gaps. In Getting it right: Using implementation research to improve outcomes in early care and education (pp. 63–86). Foundation for Child Development.

55.

Irvine

J. J.

(2012). Complex relationships between multicultural education and special education: An African American perspective. Journal of Teacher Education, 63, 268–274. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487112447113

56.

Jagers

R. J.

Rivas-Drake

Williams

(2019). Transformative social and emotional learning (SEL): Toward SEL in service of educational equity and excellence. Educational Psychologist, 54(3), 162–184. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2019.1623032

57.

Jenkins

L. N.

Floress

M. T.

Reinke

(2015). Rates and types of teacher praise: A review and future directions. Psychology in the Schools, 52(5), 463–476. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21835

58.

Jeon

Buettner

C. K.

Grant

A. A.

Lang

S. N.

(2019). Early childhood teachers’ stress and children’s social, emotional, and behavioral functioning. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 61, 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2018.02.002

59.

Jezewski

M. A.

(1990). Culture brokering in migrant farmworker health care. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 12(4), 497–513. https://doi.org/10.1177/019394599001200406

60.

Jones

D. R.

Mandell

(2020). To address racial disparities in autism research, we must think globally, act locally. Autism, 24(7), 1587–1589. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361320948313

61.

Kane

M. T.

(1992). An argument-based approach to validity. Psychological Bulletin, 112(3), 527–535. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.3.527

62.

Kennedy

C. H.

(2005). Single-case designs for educational research. Allyn & Bacon

63.

Kennedy

Jolivette

(2008). The effects of positive verbal reinforcement on the time spent outside the classroom for students with emotional and behavioral disorders in a residential setting. Behavioral Disorders, 33(4), 211–221. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290803300402

64.

Kratochwill

T. R.

Single-case design standards: An update and proposed upgrades.

Journal of School Psychology, 89, 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2021.10.006

65.

Kwame

(2017). Reflexivity and the insider/outsider discourse in indigenous research: My personal experiences. Alternative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 13(4), 218–225. https://doi.org/10.1177/1177180117729851

66.

Ledford

J. R.

Chazin

K. T.

Harbin

E. R.

Ward

S. E.

(2017). Massed trials versus trials embedded into game play: Child outcomes and preference. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 37(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121417704703

67.

Losen

D. J.

Hodson

C. L.

Keith

M. A.

Morrison

Belway

(2016). Are we closing the school discipline gap? The Center for Civil Rights Remedies at the Civil Rights Project of UCLA.

68.

Maggin

D. M.

Collins

T. A.

Foster

J. A.

Scott

M. N.

Mossing

K. W.

Dorsey

C. M.

(2022). Faculty perspectives on the recruitment, retention, and preparation of special education doctoral students of color. Teacher Education and Special Education, 45(3), 227–245. https://doi.org/10.1177/08884064211046230

69.

Major

S. O.

Seabra-Santos

M. J.

Martin

R. P.

(2015). Are we talking about the same child? Parent-teacher ratings of preschoolers’ social-emotional behaviors. Psychology in the Schools, 52(8), 789–799. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.21855

70.

Malik

(2017). New data reveal 250 preschoolers are suspended or expelled every day. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/early-childhood/news/2017/11/06/442280/new-data-reveal-250-preschoolers-suspended-expelled-every-day/

71.

McNeill

L. H.

Reitzel

L. R.

Escoto

K. H.

Roberson

C. L.

Nguyen

Vidrine

J. I.

Strong

L. L.

Wetter

D. W.

(2018). Engaging black churches to address cancer health disparities: Project CHURCH. Front. Public Health, 6(191), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00191

72.

Meek

Smith

Allen

Catherine

Edyburn

Williams

Pontier

(2020).Start with equity: From the early years to the early grades. Children’s Equity Project and Bipartisan Policy Center. https://childandfamilysuccess.asu.edu/sites/default/files/2020-07/CEP-report-071520-FINAL.pdf

73.

Merrell-James

J. J. R.

Coker

J. K.

Ghoston

Prez

J. F. C.

Field

T. A.

(2020). Recruiting, retaining, and supporting students from underrepresented racial minority backgrounds in doctoral counselor education. The Professional Counselor, 10(4), 581–602. https://doi.org/10.15241/jj.10.4.581

74.

Messick

(1995). Validity of psychological assessment: Validation of inferences from persons’ responses and performances as scientific inquiry into score meaning. American Psychologist, 50(9), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.50.9.741

75.

Morin

K. L.

Nowell

S. W.

Tomaszewski

Szendrey

McIntyre

N. S.

Yücesoy-Özkan

Savage

M. N.

(2020). Evidence-based practices for children, youth, and young adults with autism. The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, National Clearinghouse on Autism Evidence and Practice Review Team.

76.

Mortier

Brown

I. C.

Aramburo

C. M.

(2021). Cultural brokers in special education. Research and Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities, 46(1), 3–17. https://doi.org/10.1177/1540796920975386

77.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2019). Professional standards and competencies for early childhood educators [Position statement]. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/standards_and_competencies_ps.pdf

78.

National Association for the Education of Young Children & National Association of Early Childhood Specialists in State Departments of Education. (2003). Early childhood curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation: Building an effective, accountable system in programs for children birth through age 8. http://www.naeyc.org/files/naeyc/file/positions/CAPEexpand.pdf

79.

National Black Child Development Institute. (2013). Being Black is not a risk factor: A strengths based look at the state of the Black child. National Black Child Development Institute. https://www.nbcdi.org/sites/default/files/resource-files/Being%20Black%20Is%20Not%20a%20Risk%20Factor_0.pdf

80.

Ne’eman

(2021). When disability is defined by behavior, outcome measures should not promote ‘passing’. AMA Journal of Ethics, 23, E569–E75. https://doi:10.1001/amajethics.2021.569.

81.

Nese

R. N. T.

Anderson

C. A.

Ruppert

Fisher

(2016). Effects of a video feedback parent training program during child welfare visitation. Children and Youth Services Review, 71, 266–276. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2016.11.007

82.

Nese

R. N. T.

Doerner

Romer

Kaye

N. C.

Merrell

K. W.

Tom

K. M.

(2012). Social emotional assets and resilience scales short form version: Development of a strength-based behavior rating scale system. Journal for Educational Research Online, 4, 124–139. https://doi.org/10.25656/01:7054

83.

Nese

R. N. T.

Santiago-Rosario

M. R.

Malose

Hamilton

Nese

J. F. T.

Horner

(2022). Improving a universal intervention for reducing exclusionary discipline practices using student and teacher guidance. Psychology in the Schools, 59, 2042–2061. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22576

84.

Odom

S. L.

(2009). The tie that binds: Evidence-based practice, implementation science, and outcomes for children. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 29(1), 53–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121408329171

85.

Okonofua

J. A.

Eberhardt

J. L.

(2015). Two strikes: Race and the disciplining of young students. Psychological Science, 26(5), 617–624. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797615570365

86.

Osborne

Ledford

J. R.

Martin

Thorne

(2019). Component analysis of stay, play, talk interventions with and without self-monitored group contingencies and recorded reminders. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 39(1), 5–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121418815236

87.

Pang

Dinora

Yarbrough

(2020). The gap between theory and practice: Using cultural brokering to serve culturally diverse families of children with disabilities. Disability & Society, 35, 366–388. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2019.1647147

88.

Park

Zong

Batalova

(2018). Growing superdiversity among young U.S. dual language learners and its implications. Migration Policy Institute. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/sites/default/files/publications/SuperDiversityAmongDLLs_FINAL.pdf

89.

Randall

(2021). Commentary: From construct to consequences: Extending the notion of social responsibility. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 40, 32–34. https://doi.org/10.1111/emip.12452

90.

Randall

Slomp

Poe

Oliveri

M. E.

(2022). Disrupting white supremacy in assessment: Toward a justice-oriented, antiracist validity framework. Educational Measurement, 27, 170–178. https://doi.org/10.1080/10627197.2022.2042682

91.

Rashid

H. M.

(2009). From brilliant baby to child placed at risk: The perilous path of African American boys in early childhood education. The Journal of Negro Education, 78(3), 347–358.

92.

Royer

D. J.

Lane

K. L.

Dunlap

K. D.

Ennis

R. P.

(2019). A systematic review of teacher delivered behavior-specific praise on K-12 student performance. Remedial and Special Education, 40(2), 112–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517751054

93.

Sabol

T. J.

Pianta

R. C.

(2012). Recent trends in research on teacher–child relationships. Attachment & Human Development, 14(3), 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.672262

94.

Santa-Ramirez

(2022). Sink or swim: The mentoring experiences of Latinx PhD students with faculty of color. Journal of Diversity in Higher Education, 15(1), 124–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/dhe0000335

95.

Severini

K. E.

Ledford

J. R.

Robertson

R. E.

(2018). Systematic review of problem behavior interventions: Outcomes, demographics, and settings. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(10), 3261–3272. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3591-0

96.

Shaia

W. E.

Nichols

H. M.

Dababnah

Campion

Garbarino

(2020). Brief report: Participation of Black and African-American families in autism research. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50, 1841–1846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-03926-0

97.

Shealey

M. W.

(2009). Voices of African American doctoral students in special education: Addressing the shortage in leadership preparation. Race, Ethnicity and Education, 12, 349–361. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613320903178295

98.

Shogren

K. A.

Shaw

L. A.

Raley

S. K.

Wehmeyer

M. L.

(2018). Exploring the effect of disability, race-ethnicity, and socioeconomic status on scores on the self-determination inventory: Student report. Exceptional Children, 85(1), 10–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402918782150

99.

Slay

K. E.

Reyes

K. A.

Posselt

J. R.

(2019). Bait and switch: Representation, climate, and tensions of diversity work in graduate education. The Review of Higher Education, 42(5), 255–286. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2019.0052

100.

Smith

D. D.

Montrosse

B. E.

(2012). Special education doctoral programs: A 10-year comparison of the suppliers of leadership personnel. Teacher Education and Special Education, 35(2), 101–113.

101.

Smith

D. D.

Robb

S. M.

West

Tyler

N. C.

(2010). The changing education landscape: How special education leadership preparation can make a difference for teachers and their students with disabilities. Teacher Education and Special Education, 33, 25–43. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406412444455

102.

Snell

M. E.

Berlin

R. A.

Voorhees

M. D.

Stanton-Chapman

T. L.

Hadden

(2012). A survey of preschool staff concerning problem behavior and its prevention in Head Start classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14(2), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300711416818

103.

Snodgrass

M. R.

Chung

M. Y.

Meadan

Halle

J. W.

(2018). Social validity in single-case research: A systematic literature review of prevalence and application. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 74, 160–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2018.01.007.

104.

Stanton-Chapman

T. L.

Walker

V. L.

Voorhees

M. D.

Snell

M. E.

(2016). The evaluation of a three-tier model of positive behavior interventions and supports for preschoolers in Head Start. Remedial and Special Education, 37(6), 333–344. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932516629650

105.

Steed

E. A.

Kranski

T. A.

(2020). Participant characteristics in research on interventions for young children with challenging behavior: A systematic review. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 40(2), 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121419832969

106.

Steinbrenner

McIntyre

Rentschler

Pearson

J. N.

Luelmo

Jaramillo

M. E.

Boyd

Wong

Nowell

Odom

Hume

(2022). Patterns in reporting and participant inclusion related to race and ethnicity in autism intervention literature: Data from a large-scale systematic review of evidence-based practices. Autism, 26, 2026–2040. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613211072593

107.

Stevenson

H. C.

(2003). Playing with anger: Teaching coping skills to African American boys through athletics and culture. Greenwood Publishing, Praeger.

108.

Stevenson

H. C.

Jemmott

L. S.

Jemmott

J. B.

Icard

White

S. L.

Talley

L. M.

Chittamuru

Kim

O’Leary

. (2021). Shape-up: Efficacy of a culturally responsive barbershop-based violence reduction intervention RCT for young black men. Psychology of Men & Masculinities, 22(4), 579–591. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000359

109.

Trent

Dwiwardani

Page

(2021). Factors impacting the retention of students of color in graduate programs: A qualitative study. Training and Education in Professional Psychology, 15, 219–229. https://doi.org/10.1037/tep0000319

110.

U.S. Department of Education. (2015). A matter of equality: Preschool in America. https://ies.ed.gov/aboutus/diversity.asp

111.

U.S. Department of Education. (2020). Increasing diversity and representation of IES-funded education researchers. National Center for Education Research, Institute for Education Sciences, Retrieved from https://ies.ed.gov/ncer/whatsnew/techworkinggroup/pdf/DiversityTWG.pdf

112.

U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights. (2016). Civil rights data collection: Wide ranging education access and equity data collected from our nation’s public schools. http://ocrdata.ed.gov/

113.

Vygotsky

L. S.

(1986). Thought and language. MIT Press.

114.

Wahman

C. L.

Lewis

(2020). Exploring feasibility and social validity of a multicomponent intervention to teach expectations. Education and Treatment of Children, 44, 115–120. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43494-021-00038-2

115.

Wahman

C. L.

Pustejovsky

J. E.

Ostrosky

M. M.

Santos

R. M.

(2022a). Examining the effects of Social Stories™ on challenging behavior and prosocial skills in young children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 41, 267–279. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121419855692

116.

Wahman

C. L.

Steele

Steed

E. A.

Powers

(2022b). “No Intervention, Just Straight Suspension”: Family perspectives of suspension and expulsion. Children’s Youth Services Review, 143, Article 106678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2022.106678

117.

Wehby

J. H.

Symons

F. J.

Shores

R. E.

(1995). A descriptive analysis of aggressive behavior in classrooms for children with emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 20, 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874299502000207

118.

West

E. A.

Travers

J. C.

Kemper

T. D.

Liberty

L. M.

Cote

D. L.

McCollow

M. M.

Stansberry Brusnahan

L. L.

(2016). Racial and ethnic diversity of participants in research supporting evidence-based practices for learners with autism spectrum disorder. The Journal of Special Education, 50(3), 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916632495

119.

What Works Clearinghouse. (2017). Procedures and standards handbook (Version 4.0). https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/wwc/Docs/referenceresources/wwc_standards_handbook_v4.pdf

120.

Wolf

M. M.

(1978). Social validity: The case for subjective measurement or how applied behavior analysis is finding its heart 1. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 11(2), 203–214. https://doi.org/10.1901/jaba.1978.11-203

121.

Woo

S. E.

LeBreton

J. M.

Keith

M. G.

Tay

(2022). Bias, fairness, and validity in graduate-school admissions: A psychometric perspective. Perspectives on Psychological Science. . https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916211055374

122.

Wymer

S. C.

Williford

A. P.

Lhospital

A. S.

(2020). Exclusionary discipline practices in early childhood. Young Children, 75(3), 36–44.

123.

Yang

Tian

T. Y.

Woodruff

T. K.

Jones

B. F.

Uzzi

(2022). Gender-diverse teams produce more novel and higher-impact scientific ideas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, 119(36), Article e2200841119. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2200841119

124.

Yates

Ostrosky

M. M.

Cheatham

G. A.

Fettig

Shaffer

Santos

R. M.

(2008). Research synthesis on screening and assessing social-emotional competence. Child Care Bureau, Office of Head Start, The Center on Social and Emotional Foundations for Learning.

125.

Zimmerman

K. N.

Ledford

J. R.

Barton

E. E.

(2017). Using visual activity schedules for young children with challenging behavior. Journal of Early Intervention, 39(4), 339–358. https://doi.org/10.1177/1053815117725693

126.

Zimmerman

K. N.

Ledford

J. R.

Gagnon

K. L.

Martin

J. L.

(2020). Social stories and visual supports interventions for students at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 45(4), 207–223. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742919874050

127.

Zulauf-McCurdy

C. A.

Zinsser

K. M.

(2022). A qualitative examination of the parent-teacher relationship and early childhood expulsion: Capturing the voices of parents and teachers. Infants & Young Children, 35(1), 20–39. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000206