Special education teachers’ (SETs) working conditions play a crucial role in shaping the size, quality, and effectiveness of the U.S. SET workforce and thereby shape the quality of instruction provided to students with disabilities. Valid measures of SETs’ working conditions are essential for conducting robust research on how to improve working conditions. We systematically reviewed measures of SETs’ working conditions across 44 studies, assessing evidence of validity. We find that evidence of validity for existing measures is limited but that extant measures provide a starting point for future measurement development. We urge researchers to develop valid measures in the future for use in both research and policy aimed at better supporting SETs.
*AlbrechtS. F.JohnsB. H.MounstevenJ.OlorundaO. (2009). Working conditions as risk or resiliency factors for teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 46(10), 1006–1022. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20440
2.
American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, National Council on Measurement in Education, & Joint Committee on Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing (U.S.). (2014). Standards for educational and psychological testing. American Educational Research Association.
3.
*AndrewsA.BrownJ. L. (2015). Discrepancies in the ideal perceptions and the current experiences of special education teachers. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 3(6), 126–131. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v3i6.984
BakkerA. B. (2011). An evidence-based model of work engagement. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 20(4), 265–269. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721411414534
6.
BakkerA. B.DemeroutiE.Sanz-VergelA. I. (2014). Burnout and work engagement: The JD–R approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 1, 389–411. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-031413-091235
7.
*BerryA. B. (2012). The relationship of perceived support to satisfaction and commitment for special education teachers in rural areas. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 31(1), 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1177/875687051203100102
8.
BettiniE.CrockettJ. B.BrownellM. T.MerrillK. L. (2016). Relationships between working conditions and special educators’ instruction. The Journal of Special Education, 50(3), 178–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916644425
9.
BettiniE.CummingM. M.MerrillK. L.BrunstingN. C.LiaupsinC. J. (2017). Working conditions in self-contained settings for students with emotional disturbance. The Journal of Special Education, 51(2), 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916674195
10.
*BettiniE.CummingM. M.O’BrienK. M.BrunstingN. C.RagunathanM.SuttonR.ChopraA. (2020). Predicting special educators’ intent to continue teaching students with emotional or behavioral disorders in self-contained settings. Exceptional Children, 86(2), 209–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402919873556
11.
*BettiniE.JonesN. D.BrownellM. T.ConroyM. A.LeiteW. L. (2018). Relationships between novice teachers’ social resources and workload manageability. The Journal of Special Education, 52(2), 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918775432
12.
BettiniE.Mason-WilliamsL.BarberB. (2020). Access to qualified, well-supported principals across neighborhood and exclusionary schools. The Journal of Special Education, 53, 195–205. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466919831302
13.
*BettiniE.ParkY.BenedictA.KimerlingJ.LeiteW. (2016). Situating special educators’ instructional quality and their students’ outcomes within the conditions shaping their work. Exceptionality, 24(3), 176–193. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2015.1107831
14.
BillingsleyB. S. (1993). Teacher retention and attrition in special and general education: A critical review of the literature. The Journal of Special Education, 27(2), 137–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699302700202
15.
BillingsleyB. S. (2004). Special education teacher retention and attrition: A critical analysis of the research literature. The Journal of Special Education, 38(1), 39–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669040380010401
16.
BillingsleyB. S.BettiniE. (2019). Special education teacher attrition and retention: A review of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 697–744. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319862495
17.
BillingsleyB. S.BettiniE.JonesN. D. (2019). Supporting special education teacher induction through high-leverage practices. Remedial and Special Education, 40, 365–379. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932518816826
18.
BillingsleyB. S.BettiniE.MathewsH. M.McLeskeyJ. (2020). Improving working conditions to support special educators’ effectiveness: A call for leadership. Teacher Education and Special Education, 43(1), 7–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419880353
19.
BillingsleyB. S.BettiniE.WilliamsT. O. (2019). Teacher diversity in special and general education: Composition and distribution of teachers of color across schools. Remedial and Special Education, 40, 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932517733047
20.
*BillingsleyB. S.CarlsonE.KleinS. (2004). The working conditions and induction support of early career special educators. Exceptional Children, 70(3), 333–347. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290407000305
21.
BillingsleyB. S.GriffinC. C.SmithS. J.KammanM.IsraelM. (2009). A review of teacher induction in special education: Research, practice, and technology solutions (NCIPP Doc. No. RS-1). National Center to Inform Policy and Practice in Special Education Professional Development. http://copsse.education.ufl.edu/
22.
*BretonW. A.DonaldsonG. A.Jr. (1991). Too little, too late? The supervision of Maine resource room teachers. The Journal of Special Education, 25(1), 114–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246699102500108
23.
BrownellM. T.SmithS. W. (1992). Attrition/retention of special education teachers: Critique of current research and recommendations for retention efforts. Teacher Education and Special Education, 15(4), 229–248. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840649201500402
24.
BrunstingN. C.BettiniE.RockM.RoyerD. J.CommonE. A.LaneK. L.XieF.ChenA.ZengF. (2021). Burnout of special educators serving students with emotional-behavioral disorders: A longitudinal study. Remedial and Special Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/07419325211030562
25.
BrunstingN. C.SreckovicM. A.LaneK. L. (2014). Special education teacher burnout: A synthesis of research from 1979 to 2013. Education and Treatment of Children, 37(4), 681–711. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0032
26.
*BuellM. J.HallamR.Gamel-McCormickM.ScheerS. (1999). A survey of general and special education teachers’ perceptions and inservice needs concerning inclusion. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 46(2), 143–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/103491299100597
27.
*CancioE. J.AlbrechtS. F.JohnsB. H. (2013). Defining administrative support and its relationship to the attrition of teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Education and Treatment of Children, 36(4), 71–94. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2013.0035
28.
CaseyP.DunlapK.BristerH.DavidsonM. (2011). I only wish I’d known: Voices of novice alternatively certified special education teachers. International Journal of Special Education, 26(1), 182–190.
29.
*ColadarciT.BretonW. A. (1997). Teacher efficacy, supervision, and the special education resource-room teacher. The Journal of Educational Research, 90(4), 230–239. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.1997.10544577
30.
*ConleyS.YouS. (2017). Key influences on special education teachers’ intentions to leave: The effects of administrative support and teacher team efficacy in a mediational model. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 45(3), 521–540. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143215608859
31.
*CrossL. H.BillingsleyB. S. (1994). Testing a model of special educators’ intent to stay in teaching. Exceptional Children, 60(5), 411–421. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299406000504
32.
CummingM. M.BettiniE.BrunstingN. C.TheodoreS. (In press). Leveraging working conditions to improve the quality and effectiveness of the special education teacher workforce. Invited chapter for LemonsC.PowellS.LaneK. L. (Eds.), Handbook of special education research: Research based practices and intervention innovations. Routledge.
33.
CummingM. M.O’BrienK. M.BrunstingN. C.BettiniE. (2021). Special educators’ working conditions, self-efficacy, and practices use with students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 42(4), 220–234. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932520924121
34.
DeMatthewsD.BillingsleyB. S.McLeskeyJ.SharmaU. (2020). Principal leadership for students with disabilities in effective inclusive schools. Journal of Educational Administration, 58(5), 329–554. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-10-2019-0177
35.
DemeroutiE.BakkerA. B.NachreinerF.SchaufeliW. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(3), 499–512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499
36.
*DoddE. E.ScheetzN. A. (2003). Preparing today’s teachers of the deaf and hard of hearing to work with tomorrow’s students: A statewide needs assessment. American Annals of the Deaf, 148(1), 25–30. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2003.0002
37.
*EmbichJ. L. (2001). The relationship of secondary special education teachers’ roles and factors that lead to professional burnout. Teacher Education and Special Education, 24(1), 58–69. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640102400109
38.
*FallA. M.BillingsleyB. S. (2011). Disparities in work conditions among early career special educators in high- and low-poverty districts. Remedial and Special Education, 32(1), 64–78. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932510361264
39.
FallonL. M.Collier-MeekM. A.MagginD. M.SanettiL. M.JohnsonA. H. (2015). Is performance feedback for educators an evidence-based practice? A systematic review and evaluation based on single-case research. Exceptional Children, 81(2), 227–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914551738
40.
*FennickE.LiddyD. (2001). Responsibilities and preparation for collaborative teaching: Co-teachers’ perspectives. Teacher Education and Special Education, 24, 229–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640102400307
41.
*FoleyR. M. (1994). Collaboration activities and competencies of special educators serving students with behavior disorders. Special Services in the Schools, 8(2), 69–90. https://doi.org/10.1300/J008v08n02_05
42.
*FrenchN. K. (2001). Supervising paraprofessionals: A survey of teacher practices. The Journal of Special Education, 35(1), 41–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246690103500105
43.
GageN. A.CookB. G.ReichowB. (2017). Publication bias in special education meta-analyses. Exceptional Children, 83(4), 428–445. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917691016
44.
GarwoodJ. D.WertsM. G.VargheseC.GoseyL. (2018). Mixed-methods analysis of rural special educators’ role stressors, behavior management, and burnout. Rural Special Education Quarterly, 37(1), 30–43.
45.
*GeorgeN. L.GeorgeM. P.GerstenR.GrosenickJ. K. (1995). To leave or to stay? An exploratory study of teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 16(4), 227–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193259501600406
46.
*GerstenR.KeatingT.YovanoffP.HarnissM. K. (2001). Working in special education: Factors that enhance special educators’ intent to stay. Exceptional Children, 67(4), 549–567. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290106700408
47.
GiangrecoM. F.SuterJ. C.DoyleM. B. (2010). Paraprofessionals in inclusive schools: A review of recent research. Journal of Educational and Psychological Consultation, 20(1), 41–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/10474410903535356
48.
*GiangrecoM. F.SuterJ. C.HurleyS. M. (2011). Revisiting personnel utilization in inclusion-oriented schools. The Journal of Special Education, 47(2), 121–132. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466911419015
49.
GilmourA. F.FuchsD.WehbyJ. H. (2019). Are students with disabilities accessing the curriculum? A meta-analysis of the reading achievement gap between students with and without disabilities. Exceptional Children, 8(3), 329–346.
50.
GilmourA. F.WehbyJ. H. (2020). The association between teaching students with disabilities and teacher turnover. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(5), 1042–1060. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000394
51.
Gomez-NajarroJ. (2020). An empty seat at the table: Examining general and special education teacher collaboration in response to intervention. Teacher Education and Special Education, 43(2), 109–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419850894
52.
*Griffin-ShirleyN.KoenigA. K.LaytonC. A.DavidsonR. C. (2004). A survey of teachers of students with visual impairments: Responsibilities, satisfactions, and needs. RE: View: Rehabilitation and Education for Blindness and Visual Impairment, 36(1), 7–20.
53.
HagamanJ. L.CaseyK. J. (2018). Teacher attrition in special education: Perspectives from the field. Teacher Education and Special Education, 41(4), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406417725797
54.
HouchinsD. E.ShippenM. E.CattretJ. (2004). The retention and attrition of juvenile justice teachers. Education and Treatment of Children, 27(4), 374–393.
55.
HoyW. K.TarterC. J.HoyA. W. (2006). Academic optimism of schools: A force for student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 43(3), 425–446. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312043003425
56.
IngersollR. M.StrongM. (2011). The impact of induction and mentoring programs for beginning teachers: A critical review of the research. Review of Educational Research, 81(2), 201–233. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654311403323
*JonesN. D.YoungsP.FrankK. A. (2013). The role of school-based colleagues in shaping the commitment of novice special and general education teachers. Exceptional Children, 79(3), 365–383. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291307900303
KennedyM. M. (2016). How does professional development improve teaching?Review of Educational Research, 86(4), 945–980. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626800
61.
KozleskiE. B.ProffittW. A. (2020). A journey towards equity and diversity in the educator workforce. Teacher Education and Special Education, 43(1), 63–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419882671
62.
*KratzH. E.LockeJ.PiotrowskiZ.OuelletteR. R.XieM.StahmerA. C.MandellD. S. (2015). All together now: Measuring staff cohesion in special education classrooms. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(4), 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282914554853
63.
LaddH. F. (2009). Teachers’ perceptions of their working conditions: How predictive of policy-relevant outcomes? (Working Paper 33). National Center for Analysis of Longitudinal Data in Education Research.
64.
LarsonR.CsikszentmihalyiM. (2014). The experience sampling method. In CikszentmihalyiM. (Ed.), Flow and the foundations of positive psychology: The collected works of Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi (pp. 21–34). Springer.
65.
*LekoM. M.ChiuM. M.RobertsC. A. (2018). Individual and contextual factors related to secondary special education teachers’ reading instructional practices. The Journal of Special Education, 51(4), 236–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466917727514
66.
*MaloneM. D.GallagherP. A. (2010). Special education teachers’ attitudes and perceptions of teamwork. Remedial and Special Education, 31(5), 330–342. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932509338362
Mason-WilliamsL.BettiniE.PeytonD.HarveyA.RosenbergM.SindelarP. T. (2020). Rethinking shortages in special education: Making good on the promise of an equal opportunity for students with disabilities. Teacher Education and Special Education, 43(1), 45–62. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406419880352
69.
MathewsH. M.RodgersW. J.YoungsP. (2017). Sense-making for beginning special educators: A systematic mixed studies review. Teaching and Teacher Education, 67(1), 23–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2017.05.007
70.
*McCartyB.HazelkornM.BoresonL. (2003). Caseload concerns of “front line” professionals. Special Education Leadership, 16(2), 96–103.
71.
*McIntyreT. C. (1983). The effect of class size on perceptions of burnout by special education teachers. The Mental Retardation and Learning Disability Bulletin, 11, 142–145.
72.
*McManusM. E.KauffmanJ. M. (1991). Working conditions of teachers of students with behavioral disorders: A national survey. Behavioral Disorders, 16(4), 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874299101600405
73.
*MillerM. D.BrownellM. T.SmithS. W. (1999). Factors that predict teachers staying in, leaving, or transferring from the special education classroom. Exceptional Children, 65(2), 201–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299906500206
74.
*NelsonJ. R.MaculanA.RobertsM. L.OhlundB. J. (2001). Sources of occupational stress for teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 9(2), 123–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/106342660100900207
75.
NguyenT. D.PhamL. D.CrouchM.SpringerM. G. (2020). The correlates of teacher turnover: An updated and expanded meta-analysis of the literature. Educational Research Review, 31, Article 100355. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2020.100355
76.
*NicholsA. S.SosnowskyF. L. (2002). Burnout among special education teachers in self-contained cross-categorical classrooms. Teacher Education and Special Education, 25(1), 71–86. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640202500108
77.
*O’BrienK. M.BrunstingN. C.BettiniE.CummingM. M.RagunathanM.SuttonR. (2019). Special educators’ working conditions in self-contained settings for students with emotional or behavioral disorders: A descriptive analysis. Exceptional Children, 86(1), 40–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402919868946
78.
*OlmsteadJ. E. (1995). Itinerant personnel: A survey of caseloads and working conditions. Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, 89(6), 546–548. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145482X9508900611
79.
*OttoS. J.ArnoldM. (2005). A study of experienced special education teachers’ perceptions of administrative support. College Student Journal, 39(2), 253–260.
80.
RubleL.McGrewJ. H. (2013). Teacher and child predictors of achieving IEP goals of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(12), 2748–2763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1884-x
81.
RupparA. L.GaffneyJ. S.DymondS. K. (2015). Influences on teachers’ decisions about literacy for secondary students with severe disabilities. Exceptional Children, 81(2), 209–226. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402914551739
82.
*ScottL. A. (2012). Teacher self-efficacy with teaching students to lead IEP meetings: A correlation study on administration support. Journal on Educational Psychology, 5(3), 9–20. https://doi.org/10.26634/jpsy.5.3.1655
83.
ScottL. A.BrownA.WallaceW.CormierC. J.PowellC. (2021). If we’re not doing it, then who? A qualitative study of Black special educators’ persistence. Exceptionality, 29, 182–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2020.1850453
84.
ScruggsT. E.MastropieriM. A.McDuffieK. A. (2007). Co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: A metasynthesis of qualitative research. Exceptional Children, 73(4), 392–416. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290707300401
85.
*SinghK.BillingsleyB. S. (1996). Intent to stay in teaching: Teachers of students with emotional disorders versus other special educators. Remedial and Special Education, 17(1), 37–47. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193259601700105
86.
SiutyM. B.LekoM. M.KnackstedtK. M. (2018). Unraveling the role of curriculum in teacher decision making. Teacher Education and Special Education, 41(1), 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406416683230
87.
VannestK. J.Hagan-BurkeS. (2010). Teacher time use in special education. Remedial and Special Education, 31(2), 126–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932508327459
88.
*Wathum-OcamaJ. C. (1992). A survey of appropriateness of instructional language materials used with deaf students. American Annals of the Deaf, 137(5), 420–424. https://doi.org/10.1353/aad.2012.0380
89.
*WestlingD. L.WhittenT. M. (1996). Rural special education teachers’ plans to continue or leave their teaching positions. Exceptional Children, 62(4), 319–335. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F001440299606200403
90.
*WhitakerS. D. (2003). Needs of beginning special education teachers: Implications for teacher education. Teacher Education and Special Education, 26(2), 106–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/088840640302600204
91.
WongV. W.RubleL. A.YuY.McGrewJ. H. (2017). Too stressed to teach? Teaching quality, student engagement, and IEP outcomes. Exceptional Children, 83(4), 412–427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917690729
92.
YoungsP.FrankK.ThumY. M.LowM. (2012). The motivation of teachers to produce human capital and conform to their social contexts. Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, 110(2), 248–272.
93.
YoungsP.JonesN.LowM. (2011). How beginning special and general education elementary teachers negotiate role expectations and access to professional resources. Teachers College Record, 113(7), 1506–1540.
94.
*YsseldykeJ. E.ThurlowM. L.WotrubaJ. W. (1989). Special education student-teacher ratios for mildly handicapped children. The Journal of Special Education, 23(1), 95–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/002246698902300108
95.
*ZabelR. H.ZabelM. K. (2002). Burnout among special education teachers and perceptions of support. Journal of Special Education Leadership, 15(2), 67–73.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
