Students with emotional/behavioral disorders (EBD) in self-contained settings depend on special educators to deliver high-quality instruction and behavior management, and special educators depend on administrators to create supportive working environments. Yet, to date, no studies have examined how working conditions relate to special educators’ provision of effective instructional or behavior management practices for students with EBD in self-contained settings. To fill this crucial gap, we conducted a national survey of 171 special educators serving students with EBD in self-contained settings. Using structural equation modeling, we found special educators who experienced more supportive working conditions (i.e., stronger logistical resources and lower demands) reported more manageable workloads, experienced less emotional exhaustion and stress, felt greater self-efficacy for instruction, and reported using evidence-supported instructional practices more often with their students. Results have implications for future research and practice.
AlarconG. M. (2011). A meta-analysis of burnout with job demands, resources, and attitudes. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 79, 549–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2011.03.007
2.
AlbrechtS. F.JohnsB. H.MountstevensJ.OlorundaO. (2009). Working conditions as risk or resiliency factors for teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disabilities. Psychology in the Schools, 10, 1006–1022. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20440
3.
AllinderR. M. (1996). When some is not better than none: Effects of differential implementation of curriculum-based measurement. Exceptional Children, 62, 525–535. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440299606200604
4.
BettiniE.CummingM.O’BrienK.M.BrunstingN.RagunanthanM.SuttonR.ChopraA. (2020). Predicting special educators’ intent to continue teaching students with emotional/behavioral disorders in self-contained classes. Exceptional Children, 86, 209–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402919870464
5.
BettiniE.GilmoureA. F.WilliamsT.O.BillingsleyB.S. (2020). Predicting special and general eductors’ intent to continue teaching using conservation of resources theory. Exceptional Children, 86, 310–329. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402919870464
6.
BenightC. C.SwiftE.SangerJ.SmithA.ZeppelinD. (1999). Coping self-efficacy as a mediator of distress following a natural disaster. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 29, 2443–2464.
7.
BettiniE. A.CrockettJ.BrownellM. T.MerrillK. (2016). Relationships between working conditions and special educators’ instruction. The Journal of Special Education, 50, 178–190. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916644425
8.
BettiniE. A.CummingM. M.MerrillK. L.BrunstingN. C.LiaupsinC. J. (2017). Working conditions in self-contained settings for students with emotional disturbance. The Journal of Special Education, 51, 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466916674195
9.
BettiniE. A.JonesN. D.BrownellM. T.ConroyM. A.LeiteW. L. (2018). Relationships between novice teachers’ social resources and workload manageability. The Journal of Special Education, 52, 113–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918775432
10.
BettiniE. A.WangJ.CummingM.KimerlingJ.SchutzS. (2019). Special educators’ experiences of roles and responsibilities in self-contained classes for students with emotional/behavioral disorders. Remedial and Special Education, 40, 177–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/0741932518762470
11.
BillingsleyB.McLeskeyJ.CrockettJ. B. (2017). Principal leadership: Moving toward inclusive and high-achieving schools for students with disabilities (Document No. IC-8). Collaboration for Effective Educator Development, Accountability, and Reform Center, University of Florida.
12.
BishopA. G.BrownellM. T.KlingnerJ. K.LekoM. M.GalmanS. A. (2010). Differences in beginning special education teachers: The influence of personal attributes, preparation, and school environment on classroom reading practices. Learning Disability Quarterly, 33, 75–92. https://doi.org/10.1177/073194871003300202
13.
BrownellM. T.LauterbachA. A.DingleM. P.BoardmanA. G.UrbachJ. E.LekoM. M.. . . ParkY. (2014). Individual and contextual factors influencing special education teacher learning in literacy learning cohorts. Learning Disability Quarterly, 37, 31–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948713487179
14.
BrunstingN. C.SreckovicM. A.LaneK. L. (2014). Special education teacher burnout: A synthesis of research from 1979 to 2013. Education and Treatment of Children, 37, 681–711. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.2014.0032
15.
ChenS.WestmanM.EdenD. (2009). Impact of enhanced resources on anticipatory stress and adjustment to new information technology: A field experimental test of conservation of resources theory. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 14, 219–230.
16.
CommonE. A.LaneK. L.CantwellE. D.BrunstingN. C.OakesW. P.. . . BrossL. A. (2020). Teacher-delivered strategies to increase students’ opportunities to respond: A systematic methodological review. Behavioral Disorders, 45, 67–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742919828310
17.
DesimoneL.PorterA.GaretM.YoonK. S.BirmanB. (2002). Effects of professional development on teachers’ instruction: Results from a three-year longitudinal study. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 24, 81–112. https://doi.org/10.3102/01623737024002081
18.
DillmanD. A. (2007). Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method. John Wiley.
19.
GaretM. S.PorterA. C.DesimoneL.BirmanB. F.YoonK. S. (2001). What makes professional development effective? Results from a national sample of teachers. American Educational Research Journal, 38, 915–945. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312038004915
20.
GoddardR. D.GoddardY. L. (2001). A multilevel analysis of the relationship between teacher and collective efficacy in urban Schools. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 807–818. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0742-051X(01)00032-4
21.
GrossmanP.ThompsonC. (2004). District policy and beginning teachers: A lens on teacher learning. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 26, 281–301.
22.
HalbeslebenJ. R. B.NeveuJ.-P.Paustian-UnderdahlS. C.WestmanM. (2014). Getting to the “COR”: Understanding the role of resources in conservation of resources theory. Journal of Management, 40, 1334–1364. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206314527130
JacksonC.BruegmannE. (2009). Teaching students and teaching each other: The importance of peer learning for teachers. American Economic Journal: Applied Economics, 1(4), 85–108. https://doi.org/10.1257/app.1.4.85
25.
JacksonK.MakarinA. (2018). Can online off-the-shelf lessons improve student outcomes? Evidence from a field experiment. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy, 10(3), 226–254. https://doi.org/10.1257/pol.20170211
26.
JimenezB. A.LoY.SaundersA. F. (2014). The additive effects of scripted lessons plus guided notes on science quiz scores of students with intellectual disability and autism. The Journal of Special Education, 47, 231–244. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466912437937
27.
JohnsonS. M.KraftM. A.PapayJ. P. (2012). How context matters in high-need schools: The effects of teachers’ working conditions on their professional satisfaction and their students’ achievement. Teachers College Record, 114(10), 1–39.
28.
KauffmanJ. M.LandrumT. J. (2018). Characteristics of emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (11th ed.). Pearson.
29.
KielyM. T.BrownellM. T.LauterbachA. A.BenedictA. E. (2014). Teachers’ beliefs about students with special needs and inclusion. In FivesH.GillM. G. (Eds.), Handbook of research on teacher beliefs (pp. 475–491). Routledge.
30.
KlassenR. M.BongM.UsherE. L.ChongW. H.HuanV. S.WongI. Y.GeorgiouT. (2009). Exploring the validity of a Teachers’ Self-Efficacy Scale in five countries. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 34(1), 67–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.08.001
31.
KlineR. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
32.
KraftM. A.PapayJ. P. (2014). Can professional environments in schools promote teacher development? Explaining heterogeneity in returns to teaching experience. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 36, 476–500. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373713519496
33.
LeBretonJ. M.SenterJ. L. (2008). Answers to 20 questions about interrater reliability and interrater agreement. Organizational Research Methods, 11(4), 815–852. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428106296642
34.
LekoM. M.ChiuM. M.RobertsC. A. (2018). Individual and contextual factors related to secondary special education teachers’ reading instructional practices. Journal of Special Education, 51, 236–250. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466917727514
35.
LevyS.VaughnS. (2002). An observational study of teachers’ reading instruction of students with emotional or behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 27, 215–235. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290202700303
36.
LewisT. J.HudsonS.RichterM.JohnsonN. (2004). Scientifically supported practices in emotional and behavioral disorders: A proposed approach and brief review of current practices. Behavioral Disorders, 29, 247–259. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290402900306
37.
LittleR. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202.
38.
MagginD. M.WehbyJ. H.PartinT. C. M.RobertsonR.OliverR. M. (2011). A comparison of the instructional context for students with behavioral issues enrolled in self-contained and general education classrooms. Behavioral Disorders, 36, 84–99. https://doi.org/0.1177/019874291103600201
39.
MaslachC.JacksonS. E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 2, 99–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030020205
40.
McKennaJ. W.CiulloS. (2016). Typical reading instructional practices provided to students with emotional and behavioral disorders in a residential and day treatment setting: A mixed methods study. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 33, 225–246. https://doi.org/10.1080/0886571X.2016.1207217
41.
McLeskeyJ.WaldronN.ReddL. (2014). A case study of a highly effective inclusive elementary school. Journal of Special Education, 48, 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466912440455
42.
MuthénL. K.MuthénB. O. (2018). Mplus user’s guide (8th ed.).
43.
NevittJ.HancockG. R. (2001). Performance of bootstrapping approaches to model test statistics and parameter standard error estimation in structural equation modeling. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 353–377.
44.
O’BrienK. M.BrunstingN. C.BettiniE.CummingM. M.RagunathanM.SuttonR. (2019). Special educators’ working conditions in self-contained settings for students with emotional or behavioral disorders: A descriptive analysis. Exceptional Children, 86, 40–57. doi:10.1177/0014402919868946.
PorterA. C.SmithsonJ.BlankR.ZeidnerT. (2007). Alignment as a teacher variable. Applied Measurement in Education, 20, 27–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/08957340709336729
47.
RonfeldtM.FarmerS. O.McQueenK.GrissomJ. A. (2015). Teacher collaboration in instructional teams and student achievement. American Educational Research Journal, 52, 475–514. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831215585562
48.
RossS. W.RomerN.HornerR. H. (2012). Teacher well-being and the implementation of school-wide positive behavior interventions and supports. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300711413820
49.
RozalskiM.StewartA.MillerJ. (2010). How to determine the least restrictive environment for students with disabilities. Exceptionality, 18, 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1080/09362835.2010.491991
50.
RubleL. A.McGrewJ. H. (2013). Teacher and child predictors of achieving IEP goals of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43, 2748–2763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1884-x
51.
RubleL. A.UsherE. L.McGrewJ. H. (2011). Preliminary investigation of the sources of self-efficacy among teachers of students with autism. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 26, 67–74. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357610397345
52.
RussS.ChiangB.RylanceB. J.BongersJ. (2001). Caseload in special education: An integration of research findings. Exceptional Children, 67, 161–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290106700202
53.
SimonsenB.FairbanksS.BrieschA.MyersD.SugaiG. (2008). Evidence-based practices in classroom management: Considerations for research to practice. Education and Treatment of Children, 31, 351–380. https://doi.org/10.1353/etc.0.0007
54.
SiutyM. B.LekoM. M.KnackstedtK. M. (2018). Unraveling the role of curriculum in teacher decision making. Teacher Education and Special Education, 41, 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1177/0888406416683230
55.
StajkovicA. D.BanduraA.LockeE. A.LeeD.SergentK. (2018). Conceptual models of influence of the big five personality traits and self-efficacy on academic performance: A meta-analytic path-analysis. Personality and Individual Differences, 120, 238–245.
56.
SunM.LoebS.GrissomJ. A. (2017). Building teacher teams: Evidence of positive spillovers from more effective colleagues. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39, 104–125. https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373716665698
Tschannen-MoranM.HoyA. W. (2007). The differential antecedents of self-efficacy beliefs of novice and experienced teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 23, 944–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2006.05.003
59.
VannestK. J.SoaresD. A.HarrisonJ. R.BrownL.ParkerR. I. (2010). Changing teacher time. Preventing School Failure, 54, 86–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/10459880903217739
60.
WagnerM. (2014). Longitudinal outcomes and post-high school status of students with emotional or behavioral disorders. In WalkerH. M.GreshamF. M. (Eds.), Handbook of evidence-based practices for emotional and behavioral disorders: Applications in schools (pp. 86–103). Guilford Press.
61.
WanzekJ.VaughnS. (2007). Research-based implications from extensive early reading interventions. School Psychology Review, 36, 541–561.
62.
WongV. W.RubleL. A.YuY.McGrewJ. H. (2017). Too stressed to teach? Teaching quality, student engagement, and IEP outcomes. Exceptional Children, 83, 412–427. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014402917690729
63.
YoungsP.FrankK. A.ThumY. M.LowM. (2012). The motivation of teachers to produce human capital and conform to their social contexts. In SmithT.DesimoneL.PorterA. C. (Eds.), Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education: Vol. 110. Organization and effectiveness of high-intensity induction programs for new teachers (pp. 248–272). Blackwell.
64.
ZeeM.KoomenH. M. Y. (2016). Teacher self-efficacy and its effect on classroom processes, student academic adjustment, and teacher well-being: A synthesis of 40 years of research. Review of Educational Research, 86, 981–1015. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315626801
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
