The authors describe findings from a research synthesis on content area instruction for students with disabilities. Seventy studies were identified from a comprehensive literature search, examined, and coded for a number of variables, including weighted standardized mean-difference effect sizes. More than 2,400 students were participants in these investigations. Studies included interventions involving content areas, such as science, social studies, and English, and employed a number of different interventions, including study aids, classroom learning strategies, spatial and graphic organizers, mnemonic strategies, hands-on activities, classroom peers, and computer-assisted instruction. The overall effect size was 1.00, indicating an overall large effect across studies. Implications for future research and practice are described.
*Adams, V.M. ( 1992). Comparing paper-based and electronic outlining as a study strategy for mainstreamed students with learning disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 53(03), 699A. (AAT No. 9222542)
2.
Anderman, E.M. ( 1998). The middle school experience: Effects on the math and science achievement of adolescents with LD. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31, 128-138.
3.
Armbruster, B.B., & Anderson, T.H. (1988). On selecting "considerate" content area textbooks. Remedial and Special Education, 9, 47-52.
4.
*Bakken, J.P., Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. ( 1997). Reading comprehension of expository science material and students with learning disabilities: A comparison of strategies. Journal of Special Education, 31, 300-324.
5.
Bean, R.M., Zigmond, N., & Hartman, D.K. ( 1994). Adapted use of social studies textbooks in elementary classrooms: Views of classroom teachers. Remedial and Special Education, 15, 216-226.
6.
*Benedetti, D.M. ( 1984). The effectiveness of an instructional adaptation on the acquisition of science information by middle school learning disabled students . Dissertation Abstracts International, 44(11), 3346A. (AAT No. 8404884)
7.
*Bergerud, D., Lovitt, T.C., & Horton, S. ( 1988). The effectiveness of textbook adaptations in life science for high school students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 70-76.
8.
*Boon, R., Burke, M., Fore, C., & Spencer, V. ( 2006). The impact of cognitive organizers and technology-based practices on student success in secondary social studies classrooms. Journal of Special Education Technology, 21, 5-15.
9.
*Boon, R., Fore, C., Ayres, K., & Spencer, V. ( 2005). The effects of cognitive organizers to facilitate content-area learning for students with mild disabilities: A pilot study. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 32, 101-117.
10.
*Bos, C.S., & Anders, P.L. ( 1990). Effects of interactive vocabulary instruction on the vocabulary learning and reading comprehension of junior-high learning disabled students. Learning Disability Quarterly, 13, 31-42.
11.
*Bos, C.S., Anders, P.L., Filip, D., & Jaffe, L. ( 1989). The effects of an interactive instruction strategy for enhancing reading comprehension and content area learning for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 384-390.
12.
*Boyle, J.R. ( 1996). The effects of a cognitive mapping strategy on the literal and inferential comprehension of students with mild disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 19, 86-98.
13.
*Boyle, J.R., & Weishaar, M. ( 2001). The effects of strategic note taking on the recall and comprehension of lecture information for high school students with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice , 16, 133-141.
14.
*Brigham, F.J., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1995). Elaborative maps for enhanced learning of historical information: Uniting spatial, verbal and imaginal information . Journal of Special Education, 28, 440-460.
15.
*Bryant, D.P., Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Ugel, N., Hamff, A., & Hougen, M. ( 2000). Reading outcomes for students with and without reading disabilities in general education middle school content area classes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 23, 238-252.
16.
*Bulgren, J.A., Deshler, D.D., Schumaker, J.B., & Lenz, K.B. ( 2000). The use and effectiveness of analogical instruction in diverse secondary classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology , 92, 426-441.
17.
*Bulgren, J.A., Lenz, K.B., Schumaker, J.B., Deshler, D.D., & Marquis, J. ( 2002). The use and effectiveness of a comparison routine in diverse secondary classrooms. Journal of Educational Psychology , 94, 356-371.
18.
*Bulgren, J.A., Schumaker, J.B., & Deshler, D.D. ( 1988). Effectiveness of a concept teaching routine in enhancing the performance of LD students in secondary-level mainstream classes. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11, 3-17.
19.
*Bulgren, J.A., Schumaker, J.B., & Deshler, D.D. ( 1994). The effects of a recall enhancement routine on the test performance of secondary students with and without learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research, 9, 2-11.
20.
Carroll, L. ( 1995). Alice’s adventures in wonderland. London: Anness. (Original work published 1865)
21.
Cawley, J.F., Hayden, S., Cade, E., & Baker-Krooczynski, S. (2002). Including students with disabilities into the general education science classroom. Exceptional Children, 68, 423-435.
22.
Cooper, H. ( 1998). Synthesizing research: A guide for literature reviews (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage.
23.
Council for Exceptional Children. (2002). No Child Left Behind has major implications for special education. CEC Today, 9(4), 4.
24.
*Darch, C., & Eaves, R.C. ( 1986). Visual displays to increase comprehension of high school learning-disabled students. Journal of Special Education, 20, 309-318.
25.
*Darch, C., & Gersten, R. ( 1986). Direction-setting activities in reading comprehension: A comparison of two approaches. Learning Disability Quarterly , 9, 235-243.
26.
*Deluca, C.B. ( 1997). The effects of thematic-based, hands-on teaching versus a textbook approach for students with disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 59(01), 132A. (AAT No. 9822130)
27.
*DiCecco, A.M., & Gleason, M.M. ( 2002). Using graphic organizers to attain relational knowledge from expository text. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 306-320.
28.
*Doyle, C.S. ( 1999). The use of graphic organizers to improve comprehension of learning disabled students in social studies. Unpublished master’s thesis, Kean University, Union.
29.
*Fontana, J., Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. ( 2007). Mnemonic strategy instruction in inclusive secondary social studies classes. Remedial and Special Education, 28, 345-355.
30.
Forness, S.R. ( 2001). Special education and related services: What have we learned from meta-analysis? Exceptionality, 9, 185-197.
31.
Frase-Blunt, M. ( 2000). High-stakes testing a mixed blessing for special students . CEC Today, 7(2), 1, 5, 7, 15.
32.
*Fulk, B.J.M., Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. ( 1992). Mnemonic generalization training with learning disabled adolescents. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice , 7, 2-10.
33.
Groves, F.H. ( 1995). Science vocabulary load of selected secondary science textbooks. School Science and Mathematics, 95, 231-235.
34.
Hedges, L., & Olkin, I. ( 1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. New York: Academic Press.
35.
*Higgins, K., Boon, R., & Lovitt, T.C. ( 1996). Hypertext support for remedial students and students with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities , 29, 402-413.
36.
*Hollingsworth, M., & Woodward, J. ( 1993). Integrated learning: Explicit strategies and their roles in problem-solving instruction for students with learning disabilities. Exceptional Children, 59, 444-455.
37.
*Horton, S.V., & Lovitt, T.C. ( 1989). Using study guides with three classifications of secondary students. Journal of Special Education, 22, 447-462.
38.
*Horton, S.V., Lovitt, T.C., & Bergerud, D. ( 1990). The effectiveness of graphic organizers for three classifications of secondary students in content area classes. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23, 12-29.
39.
*Horton, S.V., Lovitt, T.C., Givens, A., & Nelson, R. ( 1989). Teaching social studies to high schools students with academic handicaps in a mainstreamed setting: Effects of a computerized study guide. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 22, 102-107.
40.
*Horton, S.V., Lovitt, T.C., & Slocum, T. ( 1988). Teaching geography to high school students with academic deficits: Effects of a computerized map tutorial. Learning Disability Quarterly, 11, 371-379.
41.
*Hudson, P. ( 1996). Using a learning set to increase test performance of students with learning disabilities in social studies classes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 11, 78-85.
42.
*Hudson, P. ( 1997). Using teacher guided practice to help students with learning disabilities acquire and retain social studies content. Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 23-32.
43.
*Jitendra, A.K., Hoppes, M.K., & Xin, Y.P. ( 2000). Enhancing main idea comprehension for students with learning problems: The role of a summarization strategy and self-monitoring instruction . Journal of Special Education, 34, 127-139.
44.
*Kim, A., Vaughn, S., Klingneer, J.K., Woodruff, A.L., Reutebuch, C.K., & Kouzekanani, K. (2006). Improving the reading comprehension of middle school students with disabilities through collaborative strategic reading. Remedial and Special Education, 27, 235-249.
45.
Kinder, D., Bursuck, W.D., & Epstein, M.H. ( 1992). An evaluation of history textbooks. Journal of Special Education, 25, 472-291.
46.
*King-Sears, M.E., Mercer, C.D., & Sindelar, P.T. (1992). Toward independence with keyword mnemonic: A strategy for science vocabulary instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 13, 22-33.
47.
*Leshowitz, B., Jenkens, K., Heaton, S., & Bough, T.L. ( 1993). Fostering critical thinking skills in students with learning disabilities: An instructional program. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 26, 483-490.
48.
Linn, M.C. ( 1972). An experiential science curriculum for the visually impaired . Exceptional Children, 39, 37-43.
49.
*Lovitt, T., Rudsit, J., Jenkins, J., Pious, C., & Benedetti, D. ( 1986). Adapting science materials for regular and learning disabled seventh graders. Remedial and Special Education, 7, 31-39.
50.
*MacArthur, C.A., Ferretti, R.P., & Okolo, C.M. ( 2002). On defending controversial viewpoints: Debates of sixth graders about the desirability of early 20th-centuryAmerican immigration. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 17, 160-172.
51.
*MacArthur, C.A., & Haynes, J.B. ( 1995). Student assistant for learning from text (SALT): A hypermedia reading aid. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 28, 150-159.
52.
*Madigan, K.A. ( 1993). Teaching history facts to learning and behaviorally disordered youngsters: A comparison of two instructional approaches. Dissertation Abstracts International, 54(12), 4407A. (AAT No. 9411872)
53.
*Malmquist, S.K. ( 1998). The effects of study skills on the United States history achievement of secondary-aged students with mild disabilities. Dissertation Abstracts International, 58(08), 3086A. (AAT No. 9807502)
54.
*Malone, L., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1992). Reading comprehension instruction: Summarization and self-monitoring training for students with learning disabilities . Exceptional Children, 58, 270-279.
55.
*Mastropieri, M.A., & Scruggs, T.E. ( 1988). Increasing content area learning of learning disabled students: Research implementation. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 4, 17-25.
56.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., Bakken, J.P., & Brigham, F.J. ( 1992). A complex mnemonic strategy for teaching states and their capitals: Comparing forward and backward associations. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 7, 96-103.
57.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Graetz, J.S. ( 2005). Cognition and learning in inclusive high school chemistry classes. In T. E. Scruggs & M. A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities: Vol. 18. Cognition and learning in diverse settings (pp. 107-118). New York: Elsevier.
58.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., Hamilton, S.L., Wolfe, S., Whedon, C., & Canevaro, A. ( 1996). Promoting thinking skills of students with learning disabilities: Effects on recall and comprehension of expository prose. Exceptionality, 6, 1-11.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., Mohler, L.J., Beranek, M.L., Spencer, V., Boon, R.T., et al. (2001). Can middle school students with serious reading difficulties help each other and learn anything? Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 16, 18-27.
63.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., Norland, J., Berkeley, S., McDuffie, K., Tornquist, E.H., et al. (2006). Differentiated curriculum enhancement in inclusive middle school science: Effects on classroom and high-stakes tests . Journal of Special Education, 30, 130-137.
64.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., Spencer, V., & Fontana, J. ( 2003). Promoting success in high school world history: Peer tutoring versus guided notes. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 18, 52-65.
65.
*Mastropieri, M.A., Scruggs, T.E., & Whedon, C. ( 1997). Using mnemonic strategies to teach information about U.S. presidents: A classroom investigation. Learning Disability Quarterly, 20, 13-20.
66.
*McCarthy, C.B. ( 2005). Effects of thematic-based, hands-on science teaching versus a textbook approach for students with disabilities. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 42, 245-263.
67.
*McCleery, J.A., & Tindal, G.A. ( 1999). Teaching the scientific method to at-risk students and students with learning disabilities through concept anchoring and explicit instruction. Remedial and Special Education, 20, 7-18.
68.
*McLoone, B.B., Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., & Zucker, S. ( 1988). Memory strategy instruction and training with learning disabled adolescents. Learning Disabilities Research, 2, 45-53.
69.
National Center for Education Statistics. ( 2005). NAEP science assessment data, 2000. Retrieved November 1, 2005, from http://www.nces.ed.gov/
70.
*Okolo, C.M., & Ferretti, R.P. (1996). Knowledge acquisition of technology supported projects in the social studies for students with learning disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 13, 91-102.
71.
Parloff, M.B. ( 1984). Psychotherapy research and its incredible credibility crisis. Clinical Psychology Review, 4, 95-109.
72.
Rosenberg, M.S., Adams, D.C., & Gurevitch, J. ( 2000). MetaWin: Statistical software for meta-analysis. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer.
73.
Rosenshine, B. ( 1986). Synthesis of research on explicit teaching. Educational Leadership, 43, 60-69.
74.
Rosenshine, B. ( 1987). Explicit teaching. In D. C. Berliner & B. V. Rosenshine (Eds.), Talks to teachers: A festschrift for N.L. Gage (pp. 75-92). New York: Random House.
75.
Rosenthal, R. ( 1991). Meta-analytic procedures for social research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
76.
Rosenzweig, S. ( 1936). Some implicit common factors in diverse methods of psychotherapy . American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 6, 412-415.
77.
*Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1989a). Mnemonic instruction of LD students: A field based investigation. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, 119-125.
78.
*Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1989b). Reconstructive elaborations: A model for content area learning. American Educational Research Journal, 26, 311-327.
79.
*Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (1992). Classroom applications of mnemonic instruction: Acquisition, maintenance, and generalization. Exceptional Children, 58, 219-229.
80.
Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2000). The effectiveness of mnemonic instruction for students with learning and behavior problems: An update and research synthesis. Journal of Behavioral Education, 10, 163-173.
81.
*Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Bakken, J.P., & Brigham, F.J. ( 1993). Reading versus doing: The relative effects of textbook-based and inquiry-oriented approaches to science learning in special education classrooms . Journal of Special Education, 27, 1-15.
82.
*Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Brigham, F.J., & Sullivan, S.G. (1992). Effects of mnemonic reconstructions on the spatial learning of adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 15, 154-162.
83.
*Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Levin, J.R., & Gaffney, J.S. ( 1985). Facilitating the acquisition of science facts in learning disabled students. American Educational Research Journal, 22, 575-586.
84.
Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., & McDuffie, K.A. (2007). Co-teaching in inclusive classrooms: A meta-synthesis of qualitative research. Exceptional Children, 73, 392-416.
85.
*Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., McLoone, B.B., Levin, J.R., & Morrison, C.R. (1987). Mnemonic facilitation of learning disabled students’ memory for expository prose. Journal of Educational Psychology, 79, 27-34.
86.
*Scruggs, T.E., Mastropieri, M.A., Sullivan, G.W., & Hesser, L.S. ( 1993). Improving reasoning and recall: The differential effects of elaborative interrogation and mnemonic elaboration. Learning Disability Quarterly, 16, 233-240.
87.
*Spencer, V.G., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2003). Content area learning and students with emotional or behavior disorders: Comparison of strategies. Behavioral Disorders, 28, 77-93.
88.
Swanson, H.L., & Hoskyn, M. ( 2000). Intervention research for students with learning disabilities: A comprehensive meta-analysis of group design studies. In T. E. Scruggs & M. A. Mastropieri (Eds.), Advances in learning and behavioral disabilities: Vol. 14. Educational interventions (pp. 1-153). Oxford , UK: Elsevier.
89.
*Terrill, M.C., Scruggs, T.E., & Mastropieri, M.A. (2004). SAT vocabulary instruction for high school students with learning disabilities. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39, 288-294.
90.
Thompson, B. ( 2006). Research synthesis: Effect sizes. In J. Green, G. Camilli , & P. B. Elmore (Eds.), Complementary methods for research in education (pp. 583-603). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association .
91.
U.S. Department of Education. (2005). Twenty-fifth annual report to Congress on the implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Washington, DC: Author.
92.
Virginia State Department of Education. (2006 ). Virginia school report card: Standards of Learning (SOL) assessment results. Richmond, VA: Author. Retrieved March 3, 2007, from http://www.pen.k12.va.us/VDOE/src/SOLassessments.shtml
93.
*Wilder, A.A., & Williams, J.P. (2001). Students with severe learning disabilities can learn higher order comprehension skills. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93, 268-278.
94.
*Williams, J., Brown, L., Silverstein, A., & Decant, J. ( 1994). An instructional program of narrative themes for adolescents with learning disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly , 17, 205-221.
95.
*Woodward, J., Carnine, D., & Gersten, R. ( 1988). Teacher problem solving through computer simulations . American Educational Research Journal, 25, 7-28.
