The influence of Latinos on all aspects of the American political landscape has increased dramatically in recent years. However, research on political participation among Latinas has been scarce. This study examined the factors influencing participation in protests, a type of nonelectoral political behavior, among Mexican women. This research was based on surveys with 290 Mexican women from the Chicago area and explored the role of their levels of economic, social, and household empowerment in explaining participation in protests. After controlling for a number of demographic and political factors, it was found that women with higher levels of social and household empowerment were more likely to participate in protests. More specifically, women who did not need permission from their husbands to leave their house and those who had fewer domestic chores were more active in protests.
AcockA. C.ScottW. J. (1980). A model for predicting behavior: The effect of attitude and social class on high and low visibility political participation. Social Psychology Quarterly, 43, 59-72.
2.
AlbarracinJ. (2016). At the core and in the Margins: Incorporation of Mexican immigrants in two rural Midwestern communities. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press.
AndersenK. (1975). Working women and political participation, 1952-1972. American Journal of Political Science, 19, 439-453. doi:10.2307/2110538
5.
AndrewsA. (2014). Women’s political engagement in a Mexican sending community. Gender & Society, 28, 583-608. doi:10.1177/0891243214523124
6.
BariF. (2005). Women’s political participation: Issues and challenges (United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women Expert Group Meeting: Enhancing Participation of Women in Development through an Enabling Environment for Achieving Gender Equality and the Advancement of Women). Bangkok, Thailand: The United Nations.
7.
BarretoM. A.ManzanoS.RamirezR.RimK. (2009). Mobilization, participation, and solidaridad: Latino participation in the 2006 immigration protest rallies. Urban Affairs Review, 44, 736-764. doi:10.1177/1078087409332925
8.
BejaranoC. E. (2013). The Latino gender gap in US politics (Vol. 14). New York, NY: Routledge.
9.
Benjamin-AlvaradoJ.DeSipioL.MontoyaC. (2009). Latino mobilization in new immigrant destinations: The anti-HR 4437 protest in Nebraska’s cities. Urban Affairs Review, 44, 718-735. doi:10.1177/1078087408323380
10.
BloemraadI.TrostC. (2008). It’s a family affair: Intergenerational mobilization in the spring 2006 protests. American Behavioral Scientist, 52, 507-532. doi:10.1177/0002764208324604
11.
ConwayM. M. (1991). PACs in the political process. Interest Group Politics, 3, 199-216.
12.
DaltonR. J. (1988). Citizen politics in Western democracies: Public opinion and political parties in the United States, Great Britain, West Germany, and France. London, England: Chatham House Publishers.
13.
FelixA.GonzalezC.RamirezR. (2008). Political protest, ethnic media, and Latino naturalization. American Behavioral Scientist, 52, 618-634. doi:10.1177/0002764208324611
14.
HansenS. B. (1997). Talking about politics: Gender and contextual effects on political proselytizing. The Journal of Politics, 59, 73-103.
15.
HansenS. B.FranzL. M.Netemeyer-MaysM. (1976). Women’s political participation and policy preferences. Social Science Quarterly, 56, 576-590.
16.
HarrisF. C. (1999). Something within: Religion in African-American political activism. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
17.
HuckfeldtR. R.SpragueJ. (1995). Citizens, politics and social communication: Information and influence in an election campaign. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
18.
InglehartR. (1977). The silent revolution: Changing values and political styles among Western publics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
19.
InglehartR. (1997). Modernization, postmodernization and changing perceptions of risk. International Review of Sociology, 7, 449-459. doi:10.1080/03906701.1997.9971250
20.
JenkinsJ.JacobsD.AgnoneJ. (2003). Political opportunities and African-American protest, 1948-1997. American Journal of Sociology, 109, 277-303. doi:10.1086/378340
21.
KamC. D.ZechmeisterE. J.WilkingJ. R. (2008). From the gap to the chasm: Gender and participation among non-Hispanic whites and Mexican Americans. Political Research Quarterly, 61, 205-218. doi:10.1177/1065912907309991
22.
KennyC. B. (1992). Political participation and effects from the social environment. American Journal of Political Science, 36, 259-267.
23.
LawlessJ. S.FoxR. L. (2010). It still takes a candidate: Why women don’t run for office. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
24.
LealD. L. (2002). Political participation by Latino non-citizens in the United States. British Journal of Political Science, 32, 353-370. doi:10.1017/s0007123402000145
25.
LeighleyJ. E. (1990). Social interaction and contextual influences on political participation. American Politics Quarterly, 18, 459-475.
26.
LeighleyJ. E. (1995). Attitudes, opportunities and incentives: A field essay on political participation. Political Research Quarterly, 48, 181-209.
27.
MalhotraA.SchulerS. R.BoenderC. (2002, January). Measuring women’s empowerment as a variable in international development. Background paper prepared for the World Bank Workshop on Poverty and Gender, Washington, DC.
28.
MartinezL. M. (2005). Yes we can: Latino participation in unconventional politics. Social Forces, 84, 135-155.
29.
MartinezL. M. (2008). The individual and contextual determinants of protest among Latinos. Mobilization: An International Quarterly, 13, 189-204.
30.
McAdamD. (1986). Recruitment to high-risk activism: The case of freedom summer. American Journal of Sociology, 92, 64-90. doi:10.1086/228463
31.
McVeighR.SmithC. (1999). Who protests in America: An analysis of three political alternatives—Inaction, institutionalized politics, or protest. Sociological Forum, 14, 685-702. doi:10.1023/A:1021656121301
32.
MichelsonM. R. (2001). Political trust among Chicago Latinos. Journal of Urban Affairs, 23, 323-334. doi:10.1111/0735-2166.00092
33.
MichelsonM. R. (2003). The corrosive effect of acculturation: How Mexican Americans lose political trust. Social Science Quarterly, 84, 918-933. doi:10.1046/j.0038-4941.2003.08404017.x
34.
MichelsonM. R. (2007). All roads lead to rust: How acculturation erodes Latino immigrant trust in government. Aztlán: A Journal of Chicano Studies, 32(2), 21-46.
35.
MillerA. H. (1974). Political issues and trust in government: 1964-1970. American Political Science Review, 68, 951-972. doi:10.2307/1959140
36.
MontoyaL. J.Hardy-FantaC.GarciaS. (2000). Latina politics: Gender, participation, and leadership. PS: Political Science & Politics, 33, 555-562.
37.
MunierN.AlbarracinJ.BoeckelmanK. (2015). Determinants of rural Latino trust in the federal government. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 37, 420-438.
38.
NichollsW. (2013). The DREAMers: How the undocumented youth movement transformed the immigrant rights debate. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
39.
NorrisP.WalgraveS.Van AelstP. (2005). Who demonstrates? Antistate rebels, conventional participants, or everyone?Comparative Politics, 37, 189-205. doi:10.2307/20072882
40.
NyeJ. S.ZelikowP.KingD. C. (1997). Why people don’t trust government. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
41.
PasselJ. S.CohnD. V.LopezM. H. (2011). Hispanics account for more than half of nation’s growth in past decade. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center.
42.
PaxtonP.HughesM. M. (2014). Women, politics, and power: A global perspective. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
43.
PaxtonP.KunovichS. (2003). Women’s political representation: The importance of ideology. Social Forces, 82, 87-113.
44.
PetrieM. (2004). A research note on the determinants of protest participation: Examining socialization and biographical availability. Sociological Spectrum, 24, 553-574.
PutnamR. D. (2000). Bowling alone: The collapse and revival of American community. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
47.
PutnamR. D.LeonardiR.NanettiR. Y. (1994). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
48.
RapoportR. B. (1981). The sex gap in political persuading: Where the “structuring principle” works. American Journal of Political Science, 25, 32-48.
49.
RosenstoneS.HansenJ. M. (1993). Mobilization, participation and democracy in America. New York, NY: Macmillan Publishing.
50.
SabatoL. (2013). Barack Obama and the new America: The 2012 election and the changing face of politics. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
51.
SalisburyR. H. (1975). Research on political participation. American Journal of Political Science, 19, 323-341.
52.
SapiroV. (1983). The political integration of women: Roles, socialization, and politics. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
53.
SchlozmanK. L.BurnsN.VerbaS. (1994). Gender and the pathways to participation: The role of resources. The Journal of Politics, 56, 963-990.
54.
SchlozmanK. L.VerbaS.BradyH. E. (1999). Civic participation and the equality problem. In SkocpolT.FiorinaM. P. (Eds.), Civic engagement in American democracy (pp. 427-459). Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.
55.
SchussmanA.SouleS. A. (2005). Process and protest: Accounting for individual protest participation. Social Forces, 84, 1083-1108.
56.
ShawR. (2008). Beyond the fields: Cesar Chavez, the UFW, and the struggle for justice in the 21st century. Berkeley: University of California Press.
57.
StarrA.FernandezL. A.SchollC. (2011). Shutting down the streets: Political violence and social control in the global era. New York City: New York University Press.
58.
Van AelstP.WalgraveS. (2001). Who is that (wo)man in the street? From the normalisation of protest to the normalisation of the protester. European Journal of Political Research, 39, 461-486.
59.
VerbaS.BurnsN.SchlozmanK. L. (1997). Knowing and caring about politics: Gender and political engagement. The Journal of Politics, 59, 1051-1072.
60.
VerbaS.NieN. H. (1987). Participation in America: Political democracy and social equality. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
61.
VerbaS.NieN. H.KimJ. O. (1978). Participation and political equality: A seven-nation comparison. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
62.
VerbaS.SchlozmanK. L.BradyH. E. (1995). Voice and equality: Civic voluntarism in American politics. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
63.
VerbaS.SchlozmanK. L.BradyH. E.NieN. H. (1993). Race, ethnicity and political resources: Participation in the United States. British Journal of Political Science, 23, 453-497.
64.
VossK.BloemraadI. (2011). Rallying for immigrant rights: The fight for inclusion in 21st century America. Berkeley: University of California Press.
65.
WalsS. C. (2011). Does what happens in Los Mochis stay in Los Mochis? Explaining postmigration political behavior. Political Research Quarterly, 64, 600-611.
66.
WalsS. C. (2013). Made in the USA? Immigrants’ imported ideology and political engagement. Electoral Studies, 32, 756-767.
WelchS. (1975). Support among women for the issues of the women’s movement. The Sociological Quarterly, 16, 216-227.
69.
WelchS. (1977). Women as political animals? A test of some explanations for male-female political participation differences. American Journal of Political Science, 21, 711-730.
70.
Zepeda-MillánC.WallaceS. J. (2013). Racialization in times of contention: How social movements influence Latino racial identity. Politics, Groups, and Identities, 1, 510-527.
