Applying Transformative Learning to Faith Identity Formation: Small-Group Ministry among Emerging Adults in South Korea

Abstract

This study examines the application of transformative learning theory to church-based small groups as a means of fostering faith identity formation among emerging adults in South Korea. Through literature-based analysis, it highlights how critical reflection, reflective dialogue, and transformative practice foster identity stability and strengthen engagement. The findings suggest that integrating transformative learning principles offers a sustainable framework for cultivating spiritual maturity, shaping faith identity, and fostering enduring commitment within the Korean Protestant context.

Introduction

The Korean church is experiencing a marked exodus of emerging adults—individuals in their late teens to mid-twenties—from its congregations. Many who were active in church during middle and high school discontinue participation after entering university, often due to increasing doubts about their faith and a diminished sense of belonging. According to the Campus Evangelization Network (2022), over half of those who leave the church do so after beginning university—either immediately upon enrollment (22.9%) or after some time has passed (28.5%). Ji et al. (2023) identified a clear polarization: individuals with structured faith practices tend to experience spiritual growth, whereas those lacking such formation are more likely to drift away. Both church attendance and reverence for Sunday worship have declined sharply, with the latter reduced to nearly one-third of its level just five years ago.

Setran and Kiesling (2013) note that emerging adults, while navigating major life transitions, often experience a weakening of the religious commitments established during childhood and adolescence, and they tend to become less religious overall. This stage is not merely an extension of adolescence but rather a distinct developmental phase characterized by a search for autonomy and identity. Arnett (2013) conceptualizes this life stage as “emerging adulthood,” a transitional period in which young people move toward emotional and economic independence (p. 10).

Young adult ministries within Korean churches frequently struggle to support faith development during this critical period. Although many young people attend worship during childhood due to parental or social expectations, they often disengage from church life once they begin exercising independent decision-making. A key factor is that their faith often remains externally imposed rather than internally owned. Lee (2023) attributes the increasing instability of adult Christians’ faith identity to a gap between traditional church teachings and personally integrated spirituality. This underscores the necessity of educational frameworks that enable emerging adults to actively develop and reinterpret their faith identity.

Transformative learning theory, first introduced by Mezirow (2000) and later expanded by subsequent scholars, provides a compelling framework for this purpose. The theory emphasizes critical reflection on existing beliefs and assumptions, the construction of new meaning structures, and the translation of these insights into meaningful action. Transformation occurs at the level of identity, rendering this framework highly relevant to faith formation. In small-group settings, transformative learning can create environments where emerging adults engage in deep spiritual dialogue, receive constructive feedback, and reconstruct both self-understanding and faith practice. Setran and Kiesling (2013) further recommend small-group mentoring and one-on-one relationships as effective strategies for faith development during this life stage.

Gaps in the Literature

Although small-group ministries in Korean churches are active and serve purposes such as church growth, leadership development, and spiritual training, they have largely emphasized practical implementation and evaluation. The integration of such ministries with learning theory remains underexplored. Moreover, academic research on the educational impact of emerging adult small-group ministries in Korea is extremely limited, and studies applying transformative learning theory are virtually nonexistent. This gap highlights the academic and practical significance of the present study.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to examine how emerging adults (ages 18–29) in South Korean Protestant churches engage faith identity formation within church-based small groups, using transformative learning theory as the primary analytical lens. The study examines how participants critically reflect on inherited beliefs, reinterpret their faith, and move toward renewed faith practices. Based on these findings, the research aims to propose practical strategies for small-group ministries that foster faith identity formation through transformative learning.

Methodology

This study employs a theoretical, literature-based design that thematically synthesizes scholarship on transformative learning, faith identity, emerging adulthood, and small-group ministry within the South Korean church context. To establish a basis for subsequent empirical inquiry, prior research and biblical–theological perspectives are integrated to construct a conceptual framework and derive practice-oriented proposals for church small groups. English- and Korean-language sources (2000–present) were identified with core search terms and integrated via thematic synthesis. As a conceptual, literature-based study, no original empirical data were collected; given the focus on South Korean Protestant settings and emerging-adult small groups, generalizability is limited.

Biblical–Theological Foundations

Scripture presents the nature of transformation in a multidimensional way. Romans 12:2 speaks of the renewal of the mind; 2 Corinthians 5:17 depicts the reconstitution of identity as a new creation in Christ; and Ephesians 4:22–24 together with Hebrews 10:24–25 describes a communal process in which believers, through the Spirit's guidance, put off the old self and put on the new. Romans 8:29 further grounds transformation in the sovereignty of God, identifying God as the agent of change and Christlikeness as the content and goal of that change. Likewise, 2 Corinthians 3:18 portrays transformation as a gradual process whereby believers, beholding the Lord's glory, are conformed to the image of Christ through the Spirit. These texts partially resonate with the critical reflection and dialogue emphasized in transformative learning theory (Mezirow, 2000), yet they show that Christian transformation is fundamentally oriented toward Christlikeness through the Word, the Spirit, and the life of the ecclesial community (Ferguson, 2016).

Mikaelian (2018) relocates transformative learning within a theological framework of Spirit-enabled renewal and ecclesial participation. Interpreting Colossians 3:1–17 and Romans 12:1–2, she argues that personal transformation is catalyzed within the communal life of the church and directed toward conformity to Christ. She maintains that change occurs through the illumination of God's Word and human response to the Spirit's work, and that such biblical transformation can be strengthened and deepened through pedagogical mechanisms associated with transformative learning, including critical reflection, dialogical validation, and relationally safe environments.

Setran and Kiesling (2013) further develop transformative learning theory by situating reflection within the horizon of Word–Spirit–church and emphasizing communal discernment and habituation toward Christlikeness. While transformative learning theory identifies mechanisms of change—namely critical reflection and discourse—they underscore the church-based formative practices and structures that sustain such change: habits and practices, communal context, relational safety, and patterns of accountability. In church-based small groups, this integration yields structured prompts for transformation, biblically guided critical reflection facilitated by leaders, and weekly cycles of practice and feedback, enabling groups not merely to review scriptural content or engage in simple sharing but to foster perspective transformation and strengthen faith formation among emerging adults.

Theoretical Background

Overview of Transformative Learning Theory

Jack Mezirow first introduced transformative learning theory in 1978 to explain how adult learners critically reflect on their experiences, reconstruct their existing frames of reference, and ultimately arrive at more inclusive, discriminating, and integrative perspectives. Since its inception, the theory has been expanded and refined by numerous scholars. Mezirow initially developed the theory in response to a notable increase in women returning to higher education after extended absences. Based on research into these women's consciousness-raising experiences, Mezirow (1978) identified 10 phases of transformative learning. In Mezirow's account, transformative learning typically progresses from an initial disorienting dilemma, through self-examination and the critical appraisal of taken-for-granted assumptions, to exploring alternative roles and relationships and formulating concrete action steps, ultimately reintegrating a revised perspective into one's life (Mezirow & Taylor, 2009). Mezirow (2012) argued that transformative learning occurs when there is either a change in a specific belief or attitude (a meaning scheme) or a broader shift in worldview (a habit of mind). This process involves four interdependent core elements—experience, critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action—which must interact cohesively rather than operate in isolation (Mezirow & Taylor, 2009).

Transformative learning begins with the learner's experience, yet experience alone is insufficient to produce meaningful transformation. Learners must critically examine the fundamental beliefs and assumptions that shape their interpretation of these experiences (Mezirow, 1991). According to Mezirow, transformative learning is ultimately about changing one's frames of reference. He defines a frame of reference as “the web of assumptions and expectations through which we filter the way we see the world” (Cranton, 2006, p. 18). A frame of reference “encompasses cognitive, conative, and emotional components” and comprises two main aspects: habits of mind and point of view (Mezirow, 1997, p. 5). Habits of mind refer to habitual ways of understanding the world, shaped by background, experience, culture, and personality. Points of view consist of multiple meaning schemes, which are the routine and often unconscious interpretations we apply to make sense of our experiences (Cranton, 2006). Critical reflection is central to transformative learning, as it involves the reasoned and systematic examination of underlying assumptions and habits of mind (Taylor, 2008). However, critically reassessing one's beliefs and assumptions is often a threatening experience, frequently accompanied by tension, pressure, or anxiety (Mezirow, 1978). To evaluate the validity of new interpretations and arrive at reasoned judgments, learners must engage in discourse, which Habermas described as communicative action. This refers to dialogue in which participants aim to achieve mutual understanding and shared meaning rather than simply pursue goals or solve problems (Mezirow, 2012). Discourse is effective when it respects diverse perspectives, values, and experiences while striving for consensus (Mezirow, 1991). Unlike ordinary conversation, transformative discourse arises when learners question the clarity, truthfulness, normative legitimacy, or emotional authenticity of statements, or challenge the credibility of the speaker (Mezirow, 1991). Productive discourse requires a safe and supportive environment that prioritizes meaningful exchange. Reflective discourse helps learners transcend prior understandings, recognize shifts in meaning, and expand their knowledge base (Berger, 2004). Finally, Mezirow (2000) maintained that, after critically reflecting on their existing beliefs, learners develop more autonomous and critical perspectives, leading to new courses of action. This transformation is not simply a cognitive shift but a reorientation that impacts the overall direction of one's life and practice.

Beyond Mezirow's framework, other scholars have highlighted the emotional and spiritual dimensions of transformative learning. Tisdell (2003) emphasized that identity, spirituality, and affect play critical roles in adult transformative learning, positing that transformation occurs only when learners are fully engaged in the learning experience. Spirituality and emotions facilitate internal change by enabling learners to explore life narratives and derive personal meaning. Similarly, Dirkx (2001) stressed the importance of emotions and imagination, conceptualizing transformative learning as not only intellectual reflection but also an affective process that involves the unconscious, symbolism, and storytelling. Emotions serve as catalysts for exploring the inner world and fostering self-awareness. Consequently, educators bear a responsibility to create environments where learners can integrate emotional experiences into the learning process, thereby fostering authentic transformation through reflective dialogue.

Relationships also play a vital role in transformative learning. Transformation rarely occurs in isolation; rather, it requires the support and encouragement of a community or group to facilitate growth (Daloz, 2000 ; Taylor, 2000). When individuals adopt new perspectives, the affirmation and guidance of like-minded peers or mentors enable them to translate these perspectives into meaningful action. In this regard, Mezirow's theory is particularly useful for examining reflective discourse and perspective transformation within small-group contexts.

By integrating the emotional, spiritual, and communal dimensions emphasized by Tisdell, Dirkx, and Daloz with Mezirow's cognitively focused framework, a more holistic understanding emerges of the processes through which faith reconstruction and identity formation occur in contemporary emerging adult small groups. In particular, the existential questions and spiritual transitions faced by emerging adults are shaped not solely through intellectual reflection but also through emotional engagement and relational support. This intersection provides a critical opportunity to realize the transformative potential of learning within church communities.

The Concept of Faith Identity

Spiritual identity can be understood as a subdomain of personal identity, closely linked to how individuals internalize and integrate religious beliefs, values, rituals, and a sense of belonging into their self-concept (Kiesling et al., 2006; Marcia, 1980). In this paper, the term faith identity is used to emphasize emerging adults’ sense of self as shaped by their relationship with God and their lived faith within the church community. While identity broadly refers to the continuous and coherent construction of the self in response to the question, “Who am I?”, faith identity specifically addresses, “Who am I in relation to God, and how does my faith shape my life?” (Fowler, 1981; Parks, 2000). Faith identity is not a fixed trait but a dynamic process of internalizing beliefs and integrating them into daily life.

Within Erikson's psychosocial framework, adolescence into early adulthood is marked by a developmental task of forging a coherent identity while resisting role confusion (Erikson, 1968).

During this stage, individuals explore fundamental questions about values, purpose, and spirituality. Building on Erikson's work, Marcia (1980) proposed four identity statuses—achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion—based on the levels of exploration and commitment. These statuses are also applicable to faith development. For example, individuals in the achievement status have actively explored and committed to their faith, whereas those in moratorium remain in a state of questioning without firm conclusions.

Fowler's (1981) faith development theory also provides a significant framework for understanding faith identity. He conceptualizes faith as a lifelong search for meaning and outlines six developmental stages. Among these, the Individuative-Reflective Faith stage (Stage 4) is particularly relevant to emerging adults. At this stage, individuals begin moving away from inherited beliefs, reconstructing their faith through critical reflection, internal dialogue, and autonomous commitment. Faith becomes an integral part of the self, shaped not by external authority but by personal understanding and discernment (Fowler, 1981). This developmental process underscores that faith identity is not merely about religious affiliation or doctrinal knowledge, but involves the reflective integration of faith into one's sense of self. Through this reflection, individuals ask, “What do I truly believe, and why?” and begin to embody these beliefs in meaningful ways.

Emerging adulthood, as theorized by Arnett (2013), is a critical period for identity exploration across various domains, including career, relationships, beliefs, and values. Similar to Erikson's perspective, Arnett emphasizes that this stage is marked by active exploration of worldviews and religious beliefs. Successfully navigating these explorations reduces identity confusion and equips individuals to face future developmental challenges with resilience.

In summary, faith identity is best understood as a dynamic, integrative process in which individuals move beyond external acceptance of doctrine toward a critically examined, autonomous, and life-embedded faith. For emerging adults, this process is central to forming a coherent and authentic sense of self rooted in a relationship with God and lived convictions.

The Potential Connection Between Transformative Learning and Faith Identity

Transformative learning extends beyond the mere transmission of knowledge; it is regarded as a deep, holistic theory of learning that fosters profound personal transformation. Mezirow (1991, 2000) viewed learning not simply as the accumulation of information but as a process in which individuals critically reflect on and reconstruct their internalized beliefs, values, and worldviews based on lived experiences. Through his concept of frames of reference, Mezirow emphasized that the cognitive structures individuals use to interpret and make sense of the world can be fundamentally reshaped through critical reflection (Mezirow, 1991). This perspective suggests that transformative learning goes beyond intellectual comprehension, impacting an individual's identity and overall way of life.

This theoretical lens is particularly relevant to the formation of faith identity. Fowler (1981) argued that during early adulthood—defined as the Individuative-Reflective Faith stage—individuals begin to ask fundamental questions such as, “What do I truly believe, and why?” This stage is characterized by a shift from inherited beliefs to autonomous, critically evaluated convictions, as faith becomes integrated into one's personal meaning system. Faith, therefore, transitions from passive reception of doctrine or tradition to a core, redefined element of the self—closely aligning with Mezirow's principles of critical reflection and structural transformation. Marcia's (1966) theory of identity status complements this perspective by framing identity formation along the axes of exploration and commitment. According to Marcia, authentic identity develops through autonomous questioning and critical self-reflection, processes that mirror those Mezirow identifies as central to transformative learning and that reinforce Fowler's account of faith formation.

Importantly, transformative learning is not limited to cognitive change. It entails multidimensional engagement, encompassing emotions, imagination, embodiment, spirituality, and sociocultural contexts (Tolliver & Tisdell, 2006, as cited in Merriam & Baumgartner, 2020). Tisdell (2003) emphasized that spiritual learning is often shaped by narratives, symbols, rituals, and emotional connections, all of which facilitate inner reflection and the reinterpretation of life through a transcendent lens. Research by Schreiner (2011) and Tisdell (2003) underscores the powerful role of transformative learning in fostering spiritual growth and religious identity, suggesting that adult education that incorporates spirituality and meaning-making can serve as a catalyst for deep personal and spiritual transformation—rather than functioning solely as doctrinal instruction. Cranton (2006) expanded the theory by highlighting the importance of self-awareness and authenticity. She argued that meaningful transformation occurs when learners engage in deep self-reflection, achieve greater self-understanding, and reconstruct previously held perspectives. While Cranton did not specifically address faith, her focus on authenticity and personal agency is highly relevant to faith identity formation, as individuals reinterpret inherited beliefs and internalize their faith through reflective practice. Schreiner (2011) further noted that meaningful dialogue and communal interaction positively shape both personal identity and spiritual development. This insight directly applies to adult faith-based small-group settings, where consistent sharing, open-ended questioning, and reciprocal feedback provide fertile ground for reflection and perspective transformation.

In summary, transformative learning offers a foundational educational framework for the formation of faith identity. When Christian education aims to nurture identity formation, transformative learning shifts the focus beyond the transmission of knowledge to emphasize ontological transformation. Moreover, it provides a robust foundation for practical application within small-group settings, equipping learners to embody and live out their faith in authentic and transformative ways.

Literature Review and Discussion of Application

Faith Education in South Korean Protestant Churches: Focusing on Small Groups in Emerging Adult Ministries

Faith education in South Korean Protestant churches has long employed small groups as an essential tool, with various types of small groups also operating within young adult ministries. However, it remains unclear whether these groups effectively facilitate deep learning that contributes to faith identity formation or inner transformation among young people. Within Korean Protestant churches, small groups take diverse forms, each supporting the church's spiritual maturity and qualitative growth. These include district-based small groups, discipleship training groups, cell groups, and home church gatherings, each serving distinct purposes and operating methods. District-based small groups aim to strengthen bonds among members through worship, Bible study, and fellowship (Chae, 2012). Discipleship training groups follow the model of Jesus’ discipleship, focusing on personal spiritual training and practical application of faith (Lee, 2003). Cell groups emphasize community-centered ministry and the development of lay leadership through the expansion of cells (Chae, 2012). Home church groups, modeled after the early church, focus on gathering in homes to share life experiences and mutual care (Choi, 2017). Within this broader framework, small groups in young adult ministries operate in similar formats on Sundays or during the week.

Despite this structure, small groups for young adult ministries often take place before or after Sunday worship and are typically limited to standardized curricula or sermon-based sharing. Consequently, inner learning that fosters faith identity formation or life transformation is often minimal. Through conversations with several emerging adults at a particular church, the researcher observed comments such as, “It feels like I’m just studying the Bible,” “The sharing time is boring and too long,” and “I don’t feel any meaningful change in myself through the small group.” Such observations highlight the need to restructure small groups for emerging adults to promote deeper reflection and the development of faith identity.

Hwang and Baek (2023) argue that the shortcomings of small groups in South Korean churches are partly due to the charismatic leadership style of senior pastors and the church's excessive focus on numerical growth. This emphasis on growth often diminishes attention to the personal thoughts and values of small group members. Kim (2007) similarly contends that the institutionalization of the church has weakened its function as an organic community, limiting the autonomy and vitality of small groups. He further notes that pastors often devote so much time to preaching that they neglect small group management and leader training. In the 2024 Korean Church Trends Survey conducted in May 2023, respondents cited “fellowship” and “psychological comfort” as the primary benefits of small groups, outnumbering responses related to “spiritual growth.” This finding suggests that small groups currently function more as sources of emotional support than as spaces for faith education (Ji et al., 2023).

At present, small groups primarily focus on sermon summaries and emotional sharing, which diverges from the principles of transformative learning described by Mezirow (1991) and Cranton (2006)—principles that emphasize belief reconstruction and reflection on life's meaning. Some studies, however, have examined the application of transformative learning elements within small group contexts in South Korea. Hwang and Baek (2023) highlight the value of discussion and sharing in next-generation faith education. Faith, they argue, begins with an encounter with Jesus, the Truth, and this encounter must be grounded in a deep connection between Scripture and life. Mission-oriented small group communities centered on Christ should serve as spaces where participants experience truth by sharing both the Word and their lives. Lee (2023) reports findings from a study of Christian university students at H University in Korea, where small group Bible study leaders frequently admitted, “Even after many years of faith practice, we did not know the basics of Christian faith.” These leaders identified the greatest benefit of small group Bible study as “realizing that they did not know the Bible well.” Such insights represent a metacognitive moment regarding one's faith foundation—something difficult to achieve in large, lecture-based settings (p. 13).

These studies suggest that when small-group Bible studies move beyond mere knowledge transmission to incorporate critical reflection on Scripture and its application to daily life, they can effectively foster faith identity formation among emerging adults. However, most existing literature in South Korea remains focused on pastoral strategies and approaches for small groups, with few studies presenting concrete Christian educational alternatives. Small groups function as intimate communities where young adults share personal stories and integrate their life experiences with faith, providing essential educational settings that complement one-way, pulpit-centered teaching and foster the practice of lived faith. Consequently, adopting a Christian educational approach to small groups grounded in transformative learning theory could serve as a meaningful alternative for cultivating faith identity and spiritual growth among South Korean emerging adults.

A Literature Review on the Contribution of Transformative Learning to the Formation of Faith Identity

Mezirow's theory of transformative learning offers profound insights into adult education and provides a theoretical foundation for holistic approaches that integrate spirituality. Its relevance to faith identity formation is increasingly supported by empirical research. Wallace (2021) argues that students entering Christian higher education institutions must internalize their identity in Christ to achieve genuine faith integration and proposes transformative learning as an effective pedagogical framework for discipleship. Similarly, Bleiler (2023), in a qualitative study of adult lay learners, found that applying transformative learning theory to liturgical education deepened participants’ understanding of God and encouraged meaningful faith commitments. Meneely (2015) reported that learners reinterpret their lives and beliefs, experiencing ontological transformation through the sharing of personal faith stories. Moyer (2012) likewise demonstrated that Bible study in Kenya, through dialogue and active participation, significantly influenced learners’ values and spiritual growth. Collectively, these studies indicate that reflective, learner-centered approaches—moving beyond mere knowledge transmission—have a substantial impact on faith identity formation.

Research on small group-based transformative learning among emerging adults further underscores its role in shaping faith identity. Mwangi (2017) identified relationship-centered mentoring, participatory learning environments, and interaction with leaders in small-group discipleship as key factors that facilitate perspective transformation. Similarly, Mikaelian (2018) found that relational elements such as prayer, personal sharing, and emotional safety enhance transformative learning within small groups across denominational contexts. Priyatna (2022) analyzed small-group discipleship at a Christian university in Indonesia, demonstrating its significant contributions to students’ spiritual identity formation.

Taken together, these studies show that Scripture-centered dialogue, critical reflection, and relational engagement within small groups are essential components of transformative learning and play a central role in the formation of faith identity. Small groups foster the integration of faith and life, serving as vital educational settings that support the reconstruction of self-understanding. Notably, these findings possess both conceptual validity and cross-cultural applicability, as the research spans both Western and non-Western contexts.

The process of transformation and identity formation is also evident in Scripture. Paul writes, “Do not conform to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind. Then you will be able to test and approve what God's will is—his good, pleasing and perfect will” (Romans 12:2, New International Version). This passage emphasizes the renewal of the mind and the reorientation of perspective in the journey of faith and life transformation—concepts closely aligned with the perspective transformation and identity reconstruction central to transformative learning theory.

A Practical Guide to Applying Transformative Learning in Church Small Groups

The Bible does not merely emphasize the acquisition of information but underscores the transformative power of the Word in human life. As Jesus stated, “Then you will know the truth, and the truth will set you free” (John 8:32). God does not reveal Himself through abstract messages or words alone; rather, He enables humanity to encounter the truth personally by taking on human form (Bruner, 2012). These biblical and theological perspectives are closely connected to an educational approach oriented toward the transformation of being, moving beyond the simple transmission of knowledge.

This study applies the principles of transformative learning theory to small groups in Korean Protestant emerging adult ministries, proposing an approach that transcends surface-level faith sharing and emphasizes practices that promote critical reflection and the reconstruction of faith identity. As Arnett (2000) and Setran and Kiesling (2013) observe, emerging adulthood is a critical period for identity exploration, and faith education during this stage can meaningfully shape spiritual development through critical reflection, dialogue, and practice. Accordingly, this study proposes four specific practices through which transformative learning theory can be applied in small-group settings for emerging adults.

First, small groups should prioritize reflective dialogue to facilitate critical reflection. Mezirow (2000) identified critical reflection and dialogue as central to transformative learning, and Brookfield (2012) similarly argues that well-crafted questions, designed to challenge learners’ assumptions and beliefs, can lead to transformative insights. In her qualitative study, Moyer (2012) reports that engaging learners in qualitative, reflexive dialogue can lead to changes in their values and faith. In many small-group ministry settings, leaders limit practice to checking curriculum content and prompting only superficial life application. A transformative learning approach, by contrast, uses open-ended questions to invite emerging adults to examine their experiences, assumptions, and emotions, thereby fostering critical reflection on faith identity. For example, leaders can ask such as, “How does this message challenge your understanding of faith?”, “What does this passage reveal about who you are and the life to which you are being called?”, and “Who is the God you believe in, and how has this understanding been shaped?” Such questions foster deeper engagement in faith formation, encouraging learners to move from passive acceptance to active meaning-making. Jung (2015) refers to these as transformational discussion prompts—questions that invite participants to examine their inner faith, connect belief to life, and support deeper identity and spiritual development. Leaders may prepare two or three transformational questions each week as central prompts for small-group sessions. To strengthen this approach, the study recommends that leaders participate in a good question design workshop in which they are trained to reframe content-oriented questions as transformational prompts. Furthermore, rather than relying on sequential sharing, leaders can encourage spontaneous, reciprocal questioning to enrich dialogue.

Second, small groups should facilitate personal critical reflection that enables emerging adults to examine their beliefs and narratives. Transformative learning begins with self-awareness and critical reflection on one's life context (Cranton, 2006). In many small-group settings, practice remains focused on verifying the passage, surface-level application, and testimony-oriented sharing. In contrast, the critical reflection proposed in this study invites emerging adults to test their tacit assumptions and convictions against biblical standards, thereby catalyzing perspective transformation. Setran and Kiesling (2013) emphasize that faith is not merely the accumulation of knowledge but an existential journey shaped through life stories, highlighting the importance of reflection and storytelling. Integrating personal stories with God's story plays a pivotal role in both spiritual growth and faith identity formation (Tisdell, 2003; Schreiner, 2011). Drawing on qualitative research, Meneely (2015) reports that learners experience meaningful transformation when learners reinterpret their lives and beliefs. Questions such as “What conflicts have I recently experienced in faith?” or “How has God's Word influenced my life decisions?” encourage emerging adults to reinterpret their faith within the context of their lives. To facilitate this process, the study recommends that small-group leaders implement activities such as faith-journey narrative writing and story-mapping exercise to elicit critical reflection and narrative integration. Taylor and Cranton (2012) also argue that artistic activities stimulate emotion, imagination, and spiritual awareness, enabling new insights. By using visual journaling, members can express their thoughts, emotions, and beliefs through images, colors, symbols, and text. They might also create a life journey collage that depicts their life and faith journeys using magazine cutouts, photographs, and drawings. Additionally, participants can bring song lyrics, poems, or other meaningful writings to share, explaining why these resonated with them and how their perspectives have changed. These diverse methods provide opportunities for emerging adults to explore faith identity and integrate scriptural principles into their lives in transformative ways.

Third, small groups should create opportunities for applying faith to daily life through actionable practices and mutual feedback. Transformative learning is fully realized when insights are embodied in concrete action (Mezirow, 1991). For emerging adults, this requires moving beyond cognitive understanding to personal and emotional engagement with faith in real-life contexts (Dirkx, 2001). In many small-group settings, practice either focuses on understanding biblical content or remains at the level of abstract application. A transformative-learning approach, however, helps translate Scripture into specific, actionable practices across everyday life. Setran and Kiesling (2013) emphasize that genuine educational transformation occurs when truth is integrated with lived experiences and that mature faith must be expressed through behavior. Although Perry (2023) does not explicitly employ the terminology of transformative learning theory, her analysis reveals patterns that align with its core principles, especially structured opportunities for applying faith to daily life in ways that sustain ongoing change. To this end, small groups should provide structured opportunities to apply faith in everyday settings. For example, the study recommends concluding each session with a faith-practice mission card, on which members commit to undertake a specific action for the week (e.g., “apologize to someone,” “set aside time for prayer,” or “share the gospel with a friend”). Leaders can send reminders during the week to encourage participants to follow through. The next session can begin with a faith-practice feedback round, in which members reflect on their experiences with the mission card. This cyclical structure promotes ongoing faith application and communal reflection. Importantly, feedback should be framed as mutual support rather than judgment. To foster sustained transformation, the ministry can highlight faith-practice examples every three months, sharing them anonymously within the community to provide both inspiration and encouragement. This practice of integrating action with reflection enables emerging adults to live out their faith while gaining motivation and new perspectives through peer feedback, thereby supporting ongoing faith formation.

Fourth, small groups should cultivate a relationally safe space that fosters transformative learning. Tisdell (2003) emphasizes that trust and honesty are essential for spiritual identity formation. Adult learners experience transformation when they can explore new ideas in a safe and stable learning environment that values relationships and diverse perspectives. Faith identity likewise develops through authentic relationships in contexts where individuals feel a sense of belonging and emotional safety (Setran & Kiesling, 2013). In her qualitative research, Mikaelian (2018) found that relational factors, particularly practices of prayer and the provision of emotionally safe spaces for sharing, play a significant role in activating transformative learning. In many small-group settings, leaders and members often refrain from full self-disclosure, and implicit norms of evaluative commentary or unsolicited advice may prevail. Applying a transformative-learning approach, groups can intentionally cultivate a relationally safe environment in which participants trust one another and share candidly without judgment. To create such an environment, each small group can establish conversational safety norms at the start of the year. Leaders may draft preliminary guidelines and collaborate with members to finalize them. For example, groups can adopt norms such as “Do not evaluate one another's sharing,” “Maintain eye contact and listen attentively,” and “Ask thoughtful, open-ended questions.” Leaders should also model vulnerability by sharing their own stories and struggles, which encourages members to trust and share openly. Groups can incorporate pairs sharing time each month, where pairs discuss reflective questions such as, “What challenged you this month?” “When have you felt close to or distant from God?” or “What insights or commitments have you drawn from Scripture?” Rotating partners ensures that all members build deeper relationships. Additionally, informal gatherings—such as outdoor walks, meals, or movie nights—can strengthen connections and enrich group discussions.

Therefore, small-group leaders must embrace emerging adults’ questions and identity struggles without judgment. By listening with empathy and honoring each participant's honest engagement with Scripture, leaders help them reframe their understanding of God, themselves, and their faith.

Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research

As a theoretical, literature-based conceptual study, this article does not empirically evaluate the proposed strategies; while the four practice-oriented strategies are theoretically warranted, they require validation across diverse church contexts. Nevertheless, it offers a conceptual foundation for how transformative learning may enhance the Christian formation of emerging adults in small-group settings. Future research should use validated measures in quantitative designs to test associations between specific small-group practices—reflective dialogue, critical reflection, actionable practices, and relationally safe environment —and outcomes (faith-identity clarity/commitment, communal belonging, spiritual practices); pursue qualitative studies with emerging adults to trace disorienting dilemmas, critical reflection, and identity reconstruction; and implement mixed-methods evaluations across diverse South Korean congregations (e.g., cluster or stepped-wedge designs) to assess feasibility and effects.

Conclusion

This study investigates how transformative learning can be applied to support the formation of faith identity among emerging adults within church-based small groups. Drawing on Mezirow's theory, along with insights from other scholars, the research examines the intersection of transformative learning, the developmental characteristics of emerging adulthood, and the process of faith identity formation. By analyzing the current landscape and limitations of small groups in South Korean Protestant churches, the study aims to explore the spiritual challenges and growth experiences of emerging adults within faith communities.

The literature review demonstrates that transformative learning provides a valuable educational framework for fostering faith identity formation among emerging adults. Building on this framework, the study proposes four practical strategies for small-group ministry: (1) facilitating dialogue through open-ended, reflective questions; (2) encouraging personal critical reflection; (3) integrating faith into daily life through actionable practices and feedback; and (4) cultivating a relationally safe environment that supports honest and meaningful sharing. These elements are essential for helping emerging adults critically examine their experiences, engage with diverse perspectives, and reframe their faith identity through active participation in faith communities.

Conceptually, this article advances a biblical, theological, and Christian-educational application of transformative learning theory to the faith formation of emerging adults. Practically, it offers leader-ready guidelines for structuring small group gatherings that facilitate the exploration of faith identity among emerging adults. Limitations and recommendations for further research are presented in the dedicated section.