Public education policies that aim to improve educational outcomes can have the effect of increasing the distance that many students must travel to attend school. In this article, we use American Time Use Survey data to examine whether longer school commutes influence time spent on important health-promoting activities. We find school commute time to be strongly inversely related to time spent sleeping, and negatively related to time spent exercising for those with long commutes. Thus, increasing journey to school distances may have troubling public health implications for teens.
AdamsJean. 2010. “Prevalence and Socio-demographic Correlates of ‘Active Transport’ in the UK: Analysis of the UK Time Use Survey 2005.” Preventive Medicine50 (4): 199–203.
2.
American Academy of Pediatrics. 2014. “School Start Times for Adolescents.” Pediatrics, August, peds.2014–1697.
3.
ArmstrongN.BaldingJ.GentleP.WilliamsJ.KirbyB.1990. “Peak Oxygen Uptake and Physical Activity in 11-to 16-Year-Olds.” Pediatric Exercise Science2:358.
4.
BeschenDarrell A.1972. “Transportation Characteristics of School Children.” 4. National Personal Transportation Study. Washington, DC: Federal Highway Administration.
5.
BeunenG. P.MalinaR. M.RensonR.SimonsJ.OstynM.LefevreJ.1992. “Physical Activity and Growth, Maturation and Performance: A Longitudinal Study.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise24 (5): 576–85.
6.
BhatChandra R.KoppelmanFrank S.1999. “A Retrospective and Prospective Survey of Time-Use Research.” Transportation26 (2): 119–39.
7.
BorehamC. A.TwiskJ.SavageM. J.CranG. W.StrainJ. J.1997. “Physical Activity, Sports Participation, and Risk Factors in Adolescents.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise29 (6): 788–93.
8.
BrownS. W.WelshM. C.LabbéE. E.VitulliW. F.KulkarniP.1992. “Aerobic Exercise in the Psychological Treatment of Adolescents.” Perceptual and Motor Skills74 (2): 555–60.
9.
CappuccioF. P.TaggartF. M.KandalaN.-B.CurrieA.PeileE.StrangesS.MillerM. A.2008. “Meta-analysis of Short Sleep Duration and Obesity in Children and Adults.” Sleep31 (5): 619–26.
10.
CarskadonM. A.AceboC.JenniO. G.2004. “Regulation of Adolescent Sleep: Implications for Behavior.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences1021 (1): 276–91.
11.
CarskadonM. A.WolfsonA. R.AceboC.TzischinskyO.SeiferR.1998. “Adolescent Sleep Patterns, Circadian Timing, and Sleepiness at a Transition to Early School Days.” Sleep21 (8): 871–81.
DahlR. E.LewinD. S.2002. “Pathways to Adolescent Health Sleep Regulation and Behavior.” Journal of Adolescent Health31 (6Suppl): 175–84.
14.
DwyerT.SallisJ. F.BlizzardL.LazarusR.DeanK.2001. “Relation of Academic Performance to Physical Activity and Fitness in Children.” Pediatric Exercise Science13 (3): 225–37.
15.
EwingReidGreeneWilliam. 2003. Travel and Environmental Implications of School Siting. Washington, DC: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
16.
EwingReidSchroeerWilliamGreeneWilliam. 2004. “School Location and Student Travel Analysis of Factors Affecting Mode Choice.” Transportation Research Record1895:55–63.
17.
FieldT.DiegoM.SandersC. E.2001. “Exercise Is Positively Related to Adolescents’ Relationships and Academics.” Adolescence36 (141): 105–10.
18.
FredriksenK.RhodesJ.ReddyR.WayN.2004. “Sleepless in Chicago: Tracking the Effects of Adolescent Sleep Loss during the Middle School Years.” Child Development75 (1): 84–95.
19.
HagenauerM. H.PerrymanJ. I.LeeT. M.CarskadonM. A.2009. “Adolescent Changes in the Homeostatic and Circadian Regulation of Sleep.” Developmental Neuroscience31 (4): 276–84.
20.
HansonT. L.AustinG.Lee-BayhaJ.2003. Student Health Risks, Resilience, and Academic Performance. Los Alamitos, CA: WestEd.
JenniO. G.CarskadonM. A.2004. “Spectral Analysis of the Sleep Electroencephalogram during Adolescence.” Sleep27 (4): 774–83.
23.
KitamuraRyuichiFujiiSatoshiPasEric I.1997. “Time-Use Data, Analysis and Modeling: Toward the Next Generation of Transportation Planning Methodologies.” Transport Policy4 (4): 225–35.
24.
MitruG.MillroodD. L.MateikaJ. H.2002. “The Impact of Sleep on Learning and Behavior in Adolescents.” Teachers College Record104 (4): 704–26.
25.
McDonaldNoreen C.2008. “Children’s Mode Choice for the School Trip: The Role of Distance and School Location in Walking to School.” Transportation35 (1): 23–35.
26.
McDonaldNoreenHowlettMarc. 2007. “Funding for Pupil Transportation: Framework for Analysis.” Transportation Research Record2009: 98–103.
27.
McMillanTracy E.2007. “The Relative Influence of Urban Form on a Child’s Travel Mode to School.” Transportation Research Part A41 (1): 69–79.
28.
No Child Left Behind Act of 2001. 2001. Pub. L. No. 107-110.
29.
NorrisR.CarrollD.CochraneR.1992. “The Effects of Physical Activity and Exercise Training on Psychological Stress and Well-being in an Adolescent Population.” Journal of Psychosomatic Research36 (1): 55–65.
30.
NesB. M.ØsthusI. B.WeldeB.AspenesS. T.WisløffU.2013. “Peak Oxygen Uptake and Physical Activity in 13- to 18-Year-Olds: The Young-HUNT Study.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise45 (2): 304–13.
31.
O’MalleyE. B.O’MalleyM. B.2008. “School Start Time and Its Impact on Learning and Behavior.” In Sleep and Psychiatric Disorders in Children and Adolescents, edited by IvanenkoA., 79–94. New York: Informa Healthcare.
32.
OrzechK. M.AceboC.SeiferR.BarkerD.CarskadonM. A.2014. “Sleep Patterns Are Associated with Common Illness in Adolescents.” Journal of Sleep Research23 (2): 133–42.
33.
OwensJ. A.BelonK.MossP.2010. “Impact of Delaying School Start Time on Adolescent Sleep, Mood, and Behavior.” Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine164 (7): 608–14.
34.
PateRussell R.FreedsonPatty S.SallisJames F.TaylorWendell C.SirardJohnTrostStewart G.DowdaMarsha. 2002. “Compliance with Physical Activity Guidelines: Prevalence in a Population of Children and Youth.” Annals of Epidemiology12 (5): 303–8.
35.
RobertsR. E.RobertsC. R.DuongH. T.2009. “Sleepless in Adolescence: Prospective Data on Sleep Deprivation, Health and Functioning.” Journal of Adolescence32 (5): 1045–57.
36.
RugglesStevenGenadekKatieGoekenRonaldGroverJosiahSobekMatther. 2015. Integrated Public Use Microdata Series: Version 6.0 [Machine-readable database]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota.
37.
SallisJames F.ProchaskaJudith J.TaylorWendell C.2000. “A Review of Correlates of Physical Activity of Children and Adolescents.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise32 (5): 963–75.
38.
SchlossbergMarcGreeneJessicaPhillipsPage PaulsenJohnsonBethanyParkerBob. 2006. “School Trips: Effects of Urban Form and Distance on Travel Mode.” Journal of the American Planning Association72 (3): 337–46.
39.
SmartMichael J.BrownAnneTaylorBrian D.2017. “Sex or Sexuality? Analyzing the Division of Labor and Travel in Gay, Lesbian, and Straight Households.” Travel Behaviour and Society6 (January): 75–82.
40.
SnyderThomas D.DillowSally A.2013. Digest of Education Statistics 2013. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
41.
SrinivasanSivaramakrishnanBhatChandra R.2008. “An Exploratory Analysis of Joint-Activity Participation Characteristics Using the American Time Use Survey.” Transportation35 (3): 301–27.
42.
StrongWilliam B.MalinaRobert M.BlimkieCameron J. R.DanielsStephen R.DishmanRodney K.GutinBernardHergenroederAlbert C.MustAvivaNixonPatricia A.PivarnikJames M.et al. 2005. “Evidence Based Physical Activity for School-Age Youth.” Journal of Pediatrics146 (6): 732–37.
43.
TaylorBrian D.RalphKelcieSmartMichael. 2015. “What Explains the Gender Gap in Schlepping? Testing Various Explanations for Gender Differences in Household-Serving Travel*: Gender Gap in Schlepping.” Social Science Quarterly96 (5): 1493–510.
44.
TeufelJ. A.BrownS. L.BirchD. A.2007. “Sleep among Early Adolescent Students.” American Journal of Health Studies22 (1): 10–17.
45.
TroianoR. P.BerriganD.DoddK. W.MasseL. C.TilertT.McDowellM.2008. “Physical Activity in the United States Measured by Accelerometer.” Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise40 (1): 181–88.
United States Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2015. American Time Use Survey (ATUS).
49.
United States Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. 2009. National Household Travel Survey. http://nhts.ornl.gov.
50.
VincentJeffery M.MakarewiczCarrieMillerRuthEhrmanJuliaMcKoyDeborah L.2014. Beyond the Yellow Bus: Promising Practices for Maximizing Access to Opportunity through Innovations in Student Transportation. Berkeley, CA: Center for Cities + Schools, University of California.
WahlstromK.2002. “Changing Times: Findings from the First Longitudinal Study of Later High School Start Times.” NASSP Bulletin86 (633): 3–21.
54.
WeintraubKaren. 2016. “Young and Sleep Deprived.” Monitor on Psychology, February.
55.
Whitt-GloverMelicia C.TaylorWendell C.FloydMyron F.YoreMichelle M.YanceyAntronette K.MatthewsCharles E.2009. “Disparities in Physical Activity and Sedentary Behaviors among US Children and Adolescents: Prevalence, Correlates, and Intervention Implications.” Journal of Public Health Policy30 (1): S309–34.
56.
WilsonElizabeth J.WilsonRyanKrizekKevin J.2007. “The Implications of School Choice on Travel Behavior and Environmental Emissions.” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment12 (7): 506–18.
57.
WolfsonA. R.CarskadonM. A.1998. “Sleep Schedules and Daytime Functioning in Adolescents.” Child Development69 (4): 875–87.
58.
WolfsonA. R.CarskadonM. A.2005. “A Survey of Factors Influencing High School Start Times.” NASSP Bulletin89 (642) 47–66.
59.
YuY.LuB. S.WangB.WangH.YangJ.LiZ.WangL.LiuX.TangG.XingH.et al. 2007. “Short Sleep Duration and Adiposity in Chinese Adolescents.” Sleep30 (12): 1688–97.
