Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026-4
The Impact of AI-Assisted vs. Instructor-Provided Feedback on Awe,Autonomy,and Letter Writing Skills in Introverted and Extroverted EFL Learners in Online Learning Environments
This study examines the impact of AI-assisted feedback on awe, autonomy, and letter writing skills among introverted and extroverted English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners in an online learning environment. From an initial pool of 130 fifth-semester EFL sophomores, 68 intermediate-level learners (based on Oxford Placement Test scores) were selected for analysis and randomly assigned to either an experimental group (n = 34; 19 extroverted, 15 introverted) receiving AI-assisted feedback, or a comparative group (n = 34; 16 extroverted, 18 introverted) receiving instructor-provided feedback. The participants’ personality traits were assessed using the Eysenck Personality Inventory, classifying them as extroverted or introverted within each group. To evaluate changes in awe and autonomy, the participants completed the original Awe Questionnaire (AQ) and Learner Autonomy Questionnaire before the intervention and adapted versions of these questionnaires after the intervention. Letter writing performance was assessed through pre- and post-tests. Statistical analysis using a mixed-design ANOVA revealed that the AI-assisted feedback significantly enhanced awe scores, autonomy scores, and letter writing performance compared to the instructor-provided feedback. These findings suggest that AI tools can effectively foster positive emotional experiences and improve writing skills among EFL learners, emphasizing the value of integrating AI in language education to support diverse personality traits.
AlaviniaP.HassanlouA. (2014). On the viable linkages between extroversion/introversion and academic Iranian EFL learners’ writing proficiency. English Language Teaching, 7(3), 167–175. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v7n3p167
2.
AllisonJ. (2025). RAISE the Standard: A Framework for Transparent Reporting of Artificial Intelligence Studies in Education. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 64(1), 3–15. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331251377430
3.
AlmusharrafA.AlmusharrafN. (2021). Socio-interactive practices and personality within an EFL online learning environments. Education and Information Technologies, 26(4), 3947–3966. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10449-8
4.
AndersonC. L.DixsonD. D.MonroyM.KeltnerD. (2020). Are awe‐prone people more curious? The relationship between dispositional awe, curiosity, and academic outcomes. Journal of Personality, 88(4), 762–779. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12524
5.
AsadzadianF.AsadzadianG. (2019). Canonical analysis of the relationship between personality traits and attitude with motivation and EFL learners’ written production task. Journal of Applied Linguistics and Applied Literature: Dynamics and Advances, 7(2), 135–154. https://doi.org/10.22049/jalda.2019.26631.1140
6.
BijuN.AbdelrasheedN. S. G.BakiyevaK.PrasadK. D. V.JemberB. (2024). Which one? AI-assisted language assessment or paper format: An exploration of the impacts on foreign language anxiety, learning attitudes, motivation, and writing performance. Language Testing in Asia, 14(1), 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-024-00322-z
7.
BonnerE. T.FriedmanH. L. (2011). A conceptual clarification of the experience of awe: An interpretative phenomenological analysis. The Humanistic Psychologist, 39(3), 222–235. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2011.593372
8.
BoroujeniA. A. J.RoohaniA.HasanimaneshA. (2015). The impact of extroversion and introversion personality types on EFL learners’ writing ability. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 5(1), 212. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0501.29
9.
ChallobA. I. (2021). The effect of flipped learning on EFL students’ writing performance, autonomy, and motivation. Education and Information Technologies, 26(4), 3743–3769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10434-1
10.
Chamorro-PremuzicT.FurnhamA. (2003). Personality predicts academic performance: Evidence from two longitudinal university samples. Journal of Research in Personality, 37(4), 319–338. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0092-6566(02)00578-0
11.
ChangB.HuangJ.FangJ. (2024). The awe promotes prosocial behavior: The mediating role of psychological resilience. Current Psychology, 43(48), 36933–36943. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-024-07123-w
12.
ChiricoA.GlaveanuV. P.CipressoP.RivaG.GaggioliA. (2018). Awe enhances creative thinking: An experimental study. Creativity Research Journal, 30(2), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2018.1446491
13.
CohenJ.CohenP.WestS. G.AikenL. S. (2013). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge.
14.
CsikszentmihalyiM. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. Harper & Row.
15.
DuongT. N. A.ChenH. L. (2025). An AI chatbot for EFL writing: Students’ usage tendencies, writing performance, and perceptions. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 63(2), 406–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/07356331241312363
16.
ErkanG. (2022). The impact of teacher e-feedback on students’ writing: A waste of time or a road to success?Focus on ELT Journal, 4(1), 46–59. https://doi.org/10.14744/felt.2022.4.1.4
17.
EstajiM.SafariF. (2023). Learning-oriented assessment and its effects on the perceptions and argumentative writing performance of impulsive vs. reflective learners. Language Testing in Asia, 13(1), 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-023-00248-y
18.
EvmenovaA. S.ReganK.MergenR.HrissehR. (2024). Improving writing feedback for struggling writers: Generative AI to the rescue?TechTrends, 68(4), 790–802. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11528-024-00965-y
FathiJ.RahimiM. (2024). Utilising artificial intelligence-enhanced writing mediation to develop academic writing skills in EFL learners: A qualitative study. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2024.2374772
21.
Gail JonesM.NieuwsmaJ.RendeK.CarrierS.RefvemE.DelgadoC.GrifenhagenJ.HuffP. (2022). Leveraging the epistemic emotion of awe as a pedagogical tool to teach science. International Journal of Science Education, 44(16), 2485–2504. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2022.2133557
22.
HzB. I. R. (2023). Writing anxiety in EFL students: Personality traits perspective. The Journal of English Language Teaching in Foreign Language Context, 8(2), 160–169. https://doi.org/10.24235/eltecho.v8i2.15245
23.
Jafari GoharM. (2001). Letter writing in English. Tehran PNU University.
24.
KasneciE.SesslerK.KüchemannS.BannertM.DementievaD.FischerF.GasserU.GrohG.GünnemannS.HüllermeierE.KruscheS.KutyniokG.MichaeliT.NerdelC.PfefferJ.PoquetO.SailerM.SchmidtA.SeidelT.KasneciG. (2023). ChatGPT for good? On opportunities and challenges of large language models for education. Learning and Individual Differences, 103, Article 102274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2023.102274
25.
KeltnerD.HaidtJ. (2003). Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion. Cognition & Emotion, 17(2), 297–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930302297
26.
KhasawnehM. A. S.IsmailS. M.HussenN. (2024). The blue sky of AI-assisted language assessment: Autonomy, academic buoyancy, psychological well-being, and academic success are involved. Language Testing in Asia, 14(1), 47. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-024-00318-9
27.
KhodabandehF. (2022). Exploring the applicability of virtual reality-enhanced education on extrovert and introvert EFL learners’ paragraph writing. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 19(1), 27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-022-00334-w
28.
KlugerA. N.DeNisiA. (1996). The effects of feedback interventions on performance: A historical review, a meta-analysis, and a preliminary feedback intervention theory. Psychological Bulletin, 119(2), 254–284. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.2.254
29.
KrejcieR. V.MorganD. W. (1970). Table for determining sample size from a given population. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 30(3), 607–610. https://doi.org/10.1177/001316447003000308
30.
LiuC.HouJ.TuY. F.WangY.HwangG. J. (2023). Incorporating a reflective thinking promoting mechanism into artificial intelligence-supported English writing environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(9), 5614–5632. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.2012812
31.
LuoL.YusufA. (2025). Bridging AI and pedagogy: How AI-adaptive feedback shapes Chinese EFL students’ writing engagement, metacognitive writing strategies, and writing performance. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, Advance online publication., 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2025.2548919
32.
MahapatraS. (2024). Impact of ChatGPT on ESL students’ academic writing skills: A mixed methods intervention study. Smart Learn Environ, 11(1), 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-024-00295-9
33.
Martín-GutiérrezJ.FabianiP.BenesovaW.MenesesM. D.MoraC. E. (2015). Augmented reality to promote collaborative and autonomous learning in higher education. Computers in Human Behavior, 51, 752–761. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.11.093
McKnightL. (2021). Electric sheep? Humans, robots, artificial intelligence, and the future of writing. Changing English, 28(4), 442–455. https://doi.org/10.1080/1358684X.2021.1941768
36.
Mohammadi ZenouzaghZ.AdmiraalW.SaabN. (2023). Learner autonomy, learner engagement and learner satisfaction in text-based and multimodal computer mediated writing environments. Education and Information Technologies, 28(11), 1–41. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-11615-w
37.
MonroyM.KeltnerD. (2023). Awe as a pathway to mental and physical health. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 18(2), 309–320. https://doi.org/10.1177/17456916221094856
38.
NakayamaM.NozakiY.TaylorP. M.KeltnerD.UchidaY. (2020). Individual and cultural differences in predispositions to feel positive and negative aspects of awe. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 51(10), 771–793. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022120959821
39.
NamaziandostE.RezaiA. (2024). Interplay of academic emotion regulation, academic mindfulness, L2 learning experience, academic motivation, and learner autonomy in intelligent computer-assisted language learning: A study of EFL learners. System, 125, Article 103419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103419
40.
Nelson-CoffeyS. K.RubertonP. M.ChancellorJ.CornickJ. E.BlascovichJ.LyubomirskyS. (2019). The proximal experience of awe. PLoS One, 14(5), e0216780. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0216780
41.
NosratiniaM.ZakerA. (2014). Metacognitive attributes and liberated progress: The association among second-language learners’ critical thinking, creativity, and autonomy. Sage Open, 4(3), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014547178
42.
QuesnelD.RieckeB. E. (2018). Are you awed yet? How virtual reality gives us awe and goose bumps. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 2158. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02158
43.
RuddM.VohsK. D.AakerJ. (2012). Awe expands people’s perception of time, alters decision making, and enhances well-being. Psychological Science, 23(10), 1130–1136. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797612438731
44.
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
45.
SchafferV.HucksteppT.Kannis-DymandL. (2024). Awe: A systematic review within a cognitive behavioural framework and proposed cognitive behavioural model of Awe. Int J Appl Posit Psychol, 9(1), 101–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41042-023-00116-3
46.
ShadievR.HwangW. Y.LiuT. Y. (2018). Investigating the effectiveness of a learning activity supported by a mobile multimedia learning system to enhance autonomous EFL learning in authentic contexts. Educational Technology Research & Development, 66(4), 893–912. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-9590-1
47.
ShiotaM. N.KeltnerD.MossmanA. (2007). The nature of awe: Elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept. Cognition & Emotion, 21(5), 944–963. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930600923668
TengM. F.WangC.ZhangL. J. (2022). Assessing self-regulatory writing strategies and their predictive effects on young EFL learners’ writing performance. Assessing Writing, 51, Article 100573. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asw.2021.100573
50.
Thanh ThaoL.Trut ThuyP.Thi Hai YenT.Anh ThiN.Hoang YenP.Thi Anh ThuH.Huong TraN. (2024). Unlocking the secrets of extroverted learners: A mixed-methods dive into English language learning strategies and preferences. Cogent Arts & Humanities, 11(1), Article 2303193. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311983.2024.2303193
51.
TsaiY. R. (2021). Promotion of learner autonomy within the framework of a flipped EFL instructional model: Perception and perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 34(7), 979–1011. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1650779
Van CappellenP.SaroglouV. (2012). Awe activates religious and spiritual feelings and behavioral intentions. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 4(3), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025986
VygotskyL. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Harvard University Press.
56.
WangW.JiangL. (2023). Writing on WeChat moments: Impact on writing performance and learner autonomy. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 36(7), 1236–1264. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1976799
57.
WeizenbaumJ. (1976). Computer power and human reason: From judgment to calculation. W. H. Freeman & Co.
58.
WulandariY. (2022). Effective feedback to improve students’ writing skills. Educa: English Education, Linguistics, and Literature Journal, 1(1), 10–17. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.12795486
59.
YadenD. B.KaufmanS. B.HydeE.ChiricoA.GaggioliA.ZhangJ. W.KeltnerD. (2019). The development of the awe experience scale (AWE-S): A multifactorial measure for a complex emotion. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 14(4), 474–488. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2018.1484940
60.
YamaleeE.TangkiengsirisinS. (2019). Effects of integrated feedback on academic writing achievement. Arab World English Journal, 10(3), 250–270. https://doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol10no3.17
61.
YangM. (2024). Fostering EFL university students’ motivation and self-regulated learning in writing: A socio-constructivist approach. System, volume 124, Article 103386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2024.103386
62.
ZhangJ.ZhangL. (2024). Exploring the profiles of foreign language learners’ writing self-regulation: Focusing on individual differences. Reading and Writing, 38(6), 1533–1559. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-024-10568-x
ZhangY.ChiehY. (2025). The effects of two self-regulated learning interventions on Chinese EFL students’ self-regulated writing-strategy use, motivational beliefs, and writing performance. System, 129, Article 103603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2025.103603
65.
ZhaoX. (2023). Leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) technology for English writing: Introducing wordtune as a digital writing assistant for EFL writers. RELC Journal, 54(3), 890–894. https://doi.org/10.1177/00336882221094089
66.
ZouB.LyuQ.HanY.LiZ.ZhangW. (2023). Exploring students’ acceptance of an artificial intelligence speech evaluation program for EFL speaking practice: An application of the integrated model of technology acceptance. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 38(5-6), 1366–1391. https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2023.2278608
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
