A literature survey has been carried out on the formation of soot from flames, in particular as relevant to fires. The properties of soot are very similar irrespec tive of the origin, but the effects of various parameters and additives are significantly different for diffusion flames and premixed flames. If the fuel is polymeric, the chemical structure of the polymer and its thermal breakdown mechanism will govern the amount of soot produced.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Wagner, H.-G., Seventeenth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 3 (1979).
2.
Gaydon, A.G. and Wolfhard, H.-G., "Flames—Their Structure, Radiation and Temperature,"Chapman and Hall, London (4th Edn) (1979).
3.
Haynes, B.S. and Wagner, H.-G., Prog. Energy Combust. Sci. , 7, p. 229 (1981).
4.
Stuetz, D.E. , Di Edwardo, A.H., Zitomer, F. and Barnes, B.P., J. Polym. Chem. Edn. , 13, p. 585 (1975).
5.
Stuetz, D.E. , Di Edwardo, A.H., Zitomer, F. and Barnes, B.P., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Edn. , 18, p. 967 (1980).
6.
Stuetz, D.E. , Di Edwardo, A.H., Zitomer, F. and Barnes, B.P., J. Polym. Sci., Polym. Chem. Edn. , 18, p. 987 (1980).
7.
Cullis, C.F. and Hirschler, M.M., The Combustion of Organic Polymers, Oxford University Press, Oxford (1981).
8.
Clarke, A.E. , Hunter, T.G. and Garner, F.H., J. Inst. Petrol. , 32, p. 627 (1946).
9.
Schalla, R.L. and Hubbard, R.R., in "Basic Considerations in the Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels with Air," NACA Report 1300 (Eds. H. Barnett and R. R. Hibbard) ( 1959).
10.
Schug, K.P. , Manheimer-Timnat , Y., Yaccarino, P. and Glassman, I., Comb. Sci. Technol., 22, p. 235 (1980).
11.
Markstein, G.H., Comb. Sci. Technol. , 39, p. 215 (1984).
12.
Markstein, G.H. , Twentieth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh , p. 1055 ( 1985).
13.
Markstein, G.H. , 1984Tech. Mtg., Eastern SectCombustion Institute, Clearwater Beach, paper 27 (December 3-5, 1984).
14.
Markstein, G.H. and de Ris, J., Twentieth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh , p. 1637 ( 1985).
15.
de Ris, J., 1984 Annual NBS Conference on Fire Research, Emmons Lecture, Natl Bur. Stands, Gaithersburg ( 1985).
16.
Olson, D.B. , Pickens, J.C. and Gill, R.J., Combust. Flame , 62, p. 43 (1985).
17.
Gomez, A., Sidebotham, G. and Glassman, I., Combust. Flame, 58, p. 45 (1984).
18.
Glassman, I. and Yaccarino, P., Eighteenth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 1175 (1981).
19.
Santoro, R.J. and Semerjian, H.G., Twentieth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion , The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh , p. 997 ( 1985).
20.
Kent, J.H. and Wagner, H.-G., Twentieth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 1007 (1985).
21.
Glassman, I. and Yaccarino, P., Comb. Sci. Technol., 24 , p. 107 (1980).
22.
Kent, J.H. and Wagner, H.-G., Combust. Flame, 47, p. 53 (1982).
23.
Vandsburger, U., Kennedy, I. and Glassman, I., Comb. Sci. Technol. , 39, p. 263 (1984).
24.
Wey, C., Powell, E.A. and Jagoda, J.I., Comb. Sci. Technol., 41 , p. 173 (1984).
25.
Roper, F.G., Comb. Sci. Technol., 40 , p. 323 (1984).
26.
Santoro, R.J. , Semerjian, H.G. and Dobbins, R.A., Combust. Flame , 51, p. 203 (1983).
27.
Kent, J.H. and Wagner, H.-G., Comb. Sci. Technol., 41 , p. 245 (1984).
28.
Beier, R.A. and Pagni, P.J., J. Heat Transfer , 105, p. 159 (1983).
29.
Pagni, P.J. and Okoh, C.I., Twentieth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 1045 (1985).
30.
Kent, J.H. and Bastin, S.J., Combust. Flame, 56, p. 29 (1984).
31.
Markstein, G.H., Combust. Flame , 27, p. 51 (1976).
32.
Becker, W.A. and Liang, D., Combust Flame, 52, p. 247 (1983).
Schalla, R.L. and McDonald, G.E., Fifth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion , Reinhold, New York, p. 316 (1955).
35.
McArragher, J.S. and Tan, K.J., Comb. Sci. Technol. , 5, p. 257 (1972).
36.
Flower, W.L. and Bowman, C.T., Comb. Sci. Technol. , 37, p. 93 (1984).
37.
Flower, W.L. and Bowman, C.T., Twentieth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 1035 (1985).
38.
Milberg, M.E. , J. Phys. Chem., 63, p. 578 (1959).
39.
Fenimore, C.P. and Jones, G.W., Combust. Flame , 13, p. 303 (1969).
40.
Gaydon, A.G. and Whittingham, G., Proc. R. Soc. Lond. , A189, p. 313 (1947).
41.
Arthur, J.R. and Napier, D.H., Fifth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, Reinhold, New York, p. 303 (1955).
42.
Chakroborty, B.B. and Long, R., Combust. Flame, 12, p. 469 (1968).
43.
Dearden, P. and Long, R., J. Appl. Chem., 18, p. 243 (1968).
44.
Van Treuren, K.W., Glassman, I. and Schug, K.P., 1978 Tech. Mtg., Eastern SectCombustion Institute, Miami Beach ( 1978).
45.
Thorp, C.E., Long, R. and Garner, F.M., Bibliography of Ozone Technology, Vol. 2, Armour Research Foundation, Chicago .
46.
Sidebotham, G.W. and Glassman, I., 1984 Tech Mtg., Eastern SectionCombustion Institute, Clearwater Beach, Paper 97 (December 3-5, 1984).
47.
Calcote, H.F. and Manos, D.M., Combust. Flame , 49, p. 289 (1983).
48.
Gill, R.J. and Olson, D.B., Comb. Sci. Technol., 40 , p. 307 (1984).
49.
Wolfhard, M.G. and Parker, W.G., Fuel, 29, p. 325 (1950 ).
50.
Cotton, D.H. , Friswell, N.J. and Jenkins, D.R., Combust. Flame , 17, p. 87 (1971).
51.
Simmons, R.F. and Wolfhard, H.G., Trans. Faraday Soc. , 52, p. 53 (1956).
52.
Garner, F.H., Long, R., Graham, A.J. and Badakshar, A., Sixth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, Reinhold, New York, p. 802 (1957).
53.
Ray, S.K. and Long, R., Combust. Flame, 8, p. 139 (1964).
54.
Tesner, P.A., Eighth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, Williams and Williams, Baltimore, p. 627 (1975).
55.
Bulewicz, E.M., Evans, D.G. and Padley, P.J., Fifteenth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 1461 (1975).
56.
Long, R. and Ray, S.K., Nature, 192, p. 353 (1961).
57.
Kausch, W.J., Clampitt, C.M., Prado, G., Hites, R.A. and Howard, J.B., Eighteenth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 1097 (1981).
58.
Hirschler, M.M. , J. Fire Sciences, to be published at a later date, Soot III.
59.
59. Street, J.C. and Thomas, A., Fuel, 34, p. 4 (1955).
60.
Fenimore, C.P., Jones, G.W. and Moore, G.E., Sixth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, Reinhold, New York, p. 242 (1957).
61.
Milberg, M.E. , J. Phys. Chem., 63, p. 578 (1959).
62.
Takahashi, F. and Glassman, I., Comb. Sci. Technol , 37, p. 1 (1984).
63.
Olson, D.B. and Madronich, S., Combust. Flame, 60, p. 203 (1985).
64.
Smith, E.C.W. , Proc. R. Soc. Lond. , A174, p. 110 (1940).
65.
McFarlane, J.J., Holderness, F.M. and Whitcher, F.S.E., Combust. Flame , 8, p. 215 (1964).
66.
Bonne, U. and Wagner, H.-G., Ber. Bunsenges. Phys. Chem., 69 , p. 20 (1965).
67.
Warchol, J.J. and Reuther, J.J., Comb. Sci. Technol. , 38, p. 325 (1984).
68.
68. Takahashi, F., Bonini, J. and Glassman, I., 1984 Tech. Mtg, Eastern Section Combustion Institute, Clearwater Beach, Paper 98 (December 3-5, 1984).
69.
Haynes, B.S., Jander, H., Mätzing, H. and Wagner, H.-G., Nineteenth Symp. (Int.) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 1379 (1983).
Smith, E.E. , in "Ignition, Heat Release and Non-Combustibility of Materials,"Am. Soc. Test. Mater. Spec. Tech. Publ. , 502, ASTM, p. 119 (1972).
88.
Babrauskas, V., "Development of the Cone Calorimeter, A Bench-Scale Heat Release Rate Apparatus Based on Oxygen Consumption," NBSIR82 —2611, Natl Bur. Stands, Washington (1982).
89.
Robertson, A.F. , Gross, D. and Loftus, J.J., Am. Soc. Test. Mater Proc. , 56, p. 1437 (1956).
90.
Kracklauer, J.J. , Sparkes, C.J. and Legg, R.E., Plast. Technol. , 22, p. 46 (1976).
91.
Jin, T., Proc 4th Joint Panel Meeting of the UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety, Building Research Institute, Ministry of Construction, Tokyo (February 1979 ).
92.
Benjamin, I.A. , Fire Safety J., 7 p. 9 (1984).
93.
Doe, J.E., in Toxic Hazards from Fire, Technomic, Lancaster (1985).
94.
Purser, D.A. in Toxic Hazards from Fire, Technomic, Lancaster (1985).
95.
Kaplan, H.L., Grand, A.F., Rogers, W.R., Switzer, W.G. and Hartzell, G.E., "A Research Study of the Assessment of Escape Impairment by Irritant Combustion Gases in Postcrash Aircraft Fires," DOT/FAA /CT-84/16, Southwest Research Institute—Federal Aviation Administration, Atlantic City (September 1984).
96.
Kaplan, H.L. and Hartzell, G.E., J. Fire Sci., 2, p. 286 (1984).
97.
Cullis, C.F. and Hirschler, M.M., Seventh Int. Clean Air Conf., Clean Air Soc., Australia and New Zealand, Ann Arbor Sci. Publ., Ann Arbor, p. 115 (1981).
98.
McCann, J., Proc. Natl Acad. Sci., U.S.A., 73, p. 950 ( 1972).
99.
McCann, J., Choi, E.Yamasaki, E., and Ames, B.N., Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 72, p. 5135 ( 1973).
100.
Ames, B.N. , McCann, J. and Yamasaki, E., Mutat. Res., 31, p. 347 (1975).
101.
Thilly, W.G., in "Soot in Combustion Systems and Its Toxic Properties," (Eds. J. Lahaye and G. Prado), Plenum, New York, p. 1 ( 1983).
102.
Jerina, D.M. and Daly, J.W., in "Drug Metabolism," (Eds. D. V. Parke and R. L. Smith), Taylor and Francis, London, p. 13 (1976).
103.
Jerina, D.M., Lehr, R.E., Yagi, H., Hernandez, O., Dansette, P.M., Wislocki, P.G., Wood, A.W., Chang, R.L., Levin, W. and Conney, A.M., in In Vitro Metabolic Activation in Mutagenesis Testing , (Eds. F. de Serres, J. R. Foutz and R. M. Philpot), Elsevier , Amsterdam, p. 159 (1976).
104.
Boyland, E., in "Soot in Combustion Systems and its Toxic Properties," (Eds. J. Lahaye and G. Prado), Plenum, New York, p. 13 (1983).
105.
Lowe, J.P. and Silverman, B.D., Acc. Chem. Res. , 17, p. 332 (1984).
106.
106. Hirschler, M.M., J. Fire Sci., Soot II.
107.
Tewarson, A. and Pion, R.F., Combust. Flam, 26, p. 85 (1976).
108.
Svensson, I.G. and Östman, B.A.-L., Fire Mater. , 8, p. 206 (1984).
