This article synthesizes some of the published literature that selectively compares the cognitive functioning of children with math disabilities (MDs) with average-achieving children and poor readers (children with reading disabilities [RDs] or comorbid disabilities [RDs + MDs]). All studies in the synthesis report reading, IQ, and math scores for children with MDs and poor readers. A random coefficients model of effect sizes (ESs) show that (a) ESs between MD and normal achievers were moderated by variations in working memory and literacy, (b) ESs between MD- and RD-only children were moderated by working memory and problem solving, and (c) ESs between MD and MD + RD children were moderated by long-term memory and IQ scores. No support was found for the notion that the differentiation between MD children and poor readers (RD and MD + RD) was related to variations in reading across the reviewed studies.
Badian, N.A. (1983). Arithmetic and nonverbal learning. In H. R. Myklebust (Ed.), Progress in learning disabilities (Vol. 5, pp. 235-264). New York: Grune and Stratton.
2.
Bollen, K.A. (1989). Structural equations with latent variables. New York: Wiley.
3.
Bryk, A.S., & Raudenbush, S.W. (1992). Hierarchical Linear Models: Applications and data analysis methods. London: SAGE.
4.
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). New York : Academic Press.
5.
Fletcher, J.M. (1985). Memory for verbal and nonverbal stimuli in learning disability subgroups: Analysis by selective reminding. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 40, 244-259.
6.
Fuchs, L., & Fuchs, D. (2002). Mathematical problem-solving profiles of students with mathematics disabilities with and without reading disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 35, 564-574.
Geary, D.C. (2003). Math disabilities. In H. L. Swanson, K. Harris, & S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 199-212). New York: Guildford.
9.
Geary, D.C., Hamson, C.O., & Hoard, M.K. (2000). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: A longitudinal study of process and concept deficits in children with learning disability . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 236-263.
10.
Gross-Tsur, V., Manor, O., & Shalev, R.S. (1996). Developmental dyscalculia: Prevalence and demographic features. Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology, 38, 25-33.
11.
Hedges, L.V., & Olkin, I. (1985). Statistical methods for meta-analysis. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
12.
Hox, J. (2002). Multilevel analysis: Techniques and applications . Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum .
13.
Jordan, N. (2007). Do words count? Connections between mathematics and reading difficulties. In D. Berch & M. M. Mazzocco (Eds.), Why is math so hard for some children: The nature and origins of mathematical learning difficulties and disabilities (pp. 107-120). Baltimore: Brookes.
14.
Jordan, N., Hanich, L.B., & Kaplan, D. (2003). A longitudinal study of mathematical competencies in children with specific mathematics difficulties versus children with co-morbid mathematics and reading difficulties. Child Development, 74, 834-850.
Landerl, K., Bevan, A., & Butterworth, B. (2004). Developmental dyscalculia and basic numerical capacities: A study of 8-9 year old students. Cognition, 93, 99-125.
17.
McLean, J.F., & Hitch, G.J. (1999). Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetical difficulties. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 74, 240-260.
18.
Peugh, J.L., & Enders, C.K. (2004). Missing data in educational research: A review of reporting practices and suggestions for improvement. Review of Educational Research, 74, 525-556.
19.
SAS Institute, Inc. (2003). SAS/STAT user's guide. Cary, NC: Author.
20.
Shalev, R.S., Manor, O., & Gross-Tsur, V. (1997). Neuropsychological aspects of developmental dyscalculia. Mathematical Cognition, 3(2), 105-120.
21.
Siegel, L.S., & Ryan, E.B. (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. Child Development, 60, 973-980.
22.
Singer, J.D. (2002). Fitting individual growth models using SAS PROC MIXED. In D. S. Moskowitz & S. Hersberger (Eds.), Modeling intraindividual variability with repeated measures data: Methods and applications (pp. 135-170). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Swanson, H.L. (1993). Working memory in learning disability subgroups . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 87-114.
25.
Swanson, H.L., & Jerman, O. (2006). Math disabilities: A selective meta-analysis of the literature. Review of Educational Research, 76, 249-274.
26.
Swanson, H.L., & Sachse-Lee, C. (2001). Mathematical problem solving and working memory in children with learning disabilities: Both executive and phonological processes are important. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 79, 294-321.
27.
Temple, C., & Sherwood, S. (2002). Representation and retrieval of arithmetical facts: Developmental difficulties. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 55A(3), 733-752.
28.
**Denotes studies included in present meta-analysis. *Denotes additional studies in the original analysis.
29.
**Badian, N.A. (1999). Persistent arithmetic, reading, or arithmetic and reading disability. Annals of Dyslexia, 49, 45-70.
30.
*Brookshire, B.L., Butler, I.J., Ewing-Cobbs, L., & Fletcher, J.M. (1994). Neuropsychological characteristics of children with Tourette syndrome: Evidence for a nonverbal learning disability ? Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 16, 289-302.
31.
**Fletcher, J.M. (1985). Memory for verbal and nonverbal stimuli in learning disability subgroups: Analysis by selective reminding. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 40, 244-259.
32.
*Garnett, K., & Fleischner, J.E. (1983). Automatization and basic fact performance of normal and learning disabled children. Learning Disability Quarterly, 6, 223-230.
33.
**Geary, D.C., Hamson, C.O., & Hoard, M.K. (2000). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: A longitudinal study of process and concept deficits in children with learning disability . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 77, 236-263.
34.
**Geary, D.C., Hoard, M.K., & Hamson, C.O. (1999). Numerical and arithmetical cognition: Patterns of functions and deficits in children at risk for a mathematical disability . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 74, 213-239.
35.
*Gonzalez, J.E.J., & Espinel, A.I.G. (1999). Is IQ-achievement discrepancy relevant in the definition of arithmetic learning disabilities? Learning Disability Quarterly, 22, 291-301.
36.
*Gonzalez, J.E.J., & Espinel, A.I.G. (2002). Strategy choice in solving arithmetic word problems: Are there differences between students with learning disabilities, G-V poor performance and typical achievement students?Learning Disability Quarterly, 25, 113-122.
37.
*Klorman, R., Thatcher, J.E., Shaywitz, S.E., Fletcher, J.M., Marchione, K.E., Holahan, J.M., et al. (2002). Effects of event probability and sequence on children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity, reading, and math disorder . Biological Psychiatry, 52, 795-804.
38.
*Lennox, C., & Siegel, L.S. (1993). Visual and phonological spelling errors in subtypes of children with learning disabilities. Applied Psycholinguistics , 14, 473-488.
39.
*Lindsay, R.L., Tomazic, T., Levine, M.D., & Accardo, P.J. (2001). Attentional function as measured by a continuous performance task in children with dyscalculia. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 22(5), 287-293.
40.
**Loveland, K.A., Fletcher, J.M., & Bailey, V. (1990). Verbal and nonverbal communication of events in learning-disability subtypes. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 12(4), 433-447.
41.
*Lucangeli, D., Coi, G., & Bosco, P. (1997). Metacognitive awareness in good and poor math problem solvers. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice , 12(4), 209-212.
42.
*Lund, A.M., Hall, J.W., Wilson, K.P., & Humphreys, M.S. (1983). Frequency judgment accuracy as a function of age and school achievement (learning disabled versus non-learning-disabled) patterns. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 35, 236-247.
43.
*Mattson, A.J., Sheer, D.E., & Fletcher, J.M. (1992). Electrophysiological evidence of lateralized disturbances in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 14(5), 707-716.
44.
*Mazzocco, M.M. (2001). Math learning disability and math LD subtypes: Evidence from studies of Turner syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, and Neurofibromatosis type 1. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(6), 520-533.
45.
**McLean, J.F., & Hitch, G.J. (1999). Working memory impairments in children with specific arithmetical difficulties. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 74, 240-260.
46.
**Miles, J., & Stelmack, R.M. (1994). Learning disability subtypes and the effects of auditory and visual priming on visual event-related potentials to words. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology , 16(1), 43-64.
47.
*Montague, M., & Applegate, B. (1993). Mathematical problem-solving characteristics of middle school students with learning disabilities. The Journal of Special Education, 27(2), 175-201.
48.
*Nolan, D.R., Hammeke, T.A., & Barkley, R.A. (1983). A comparison of the patterns of the neuropsychological performance in two groups of learning disabled children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 12(1), 22-27.
49.
*Passolunghi, M.C., Cornoldi, C., & De Liberto, S. (1999). Working memory and intrusions of irrelevant information in a group of specific poor problem solvers. Memory & Cognition, 27(5), 779-790.
50.
*Passolunghi, M.C., & Siegel, L.S. (2001). Short-term memory, working memory, and inhibitory control in children with difficulties in arithmetic problem solving. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 80, 44-57.
51.
*Shafrir, U., & Siegel, L.S. (1994). Subtypes of learning disabilities in adolescents and adults. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27, 123-134.
52.
*Share, D.L., Moffitt, T.E., & Silva, P.A. (1988). Factors associated with arithmetic-and-reading disability and specific arithmetic disability. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 21, 313-320.
53.
*Siegel, L.S., & Ryan, E.B. (1988). Development of grammatical-sensitivity, phonological, and short-term memory skills in normally achieving and learning disabled children . Developmental Psychology, 24(1), 28-37.
54.
**Siegel, L.S., & Ryan, E.B. (1989). The development of working memory in normally achieving and subtypes of learning disabled children. Child Development, 60, 973-980.
55.
**Sikora, D.M., Haley, P., Edwards, J., & Butler, R.W. (2002). Tower of London test performance in children with poor arithmetic skills. Developmental Neuropsychology, 21(3), 243-254.
56.
**Swanson, H.L. (1993). Working memory in learning disability subgroups . Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 56, 87-114.
57.
**Swanson, H.L. (1994). The role of working memory and dynamic assessment in the classification of children with learning disabilities. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 9(4), 190-202.
