The open dumping and burning of municipal solid waste (MSW) remain prevalent due to their low cost, despite posing serious risks to environmental and human health. This study assesses the contamination levels and the distribution of 22 persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including 13 polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and 9 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in and around an open burning MSW site in Mahdia, Tunisia. POP concentrations were quantified across different environmental matrices (i.e. surface water, sediment, soil, soil–leachate, fly ash and mallow plants) using gas chromatography coupled with single quadrupole mass spectrometry (GC-MS/MS). Furthermore, the OECD 301F manometric respirometry test was employed to evaluate the biodegradability of these compounds. Results revealed significant accumulation of POPs, particularly in fly ash and plant samples. Benzo[ghi]perylene and phenanthrene were identified as the predominant PAHs. The highest concentrations of PCBs and PAHs were found in fly ash (0.753 ± 3.54 µg per kg dry weight (dw) and 19.621 ± 26.76 µg per kg dw, respectively) and in plant material (0.378 ± 1.33 µg per kg dw and 42.563 ± 74.03 µg per kg dw, respectively), whereas surface water exhibited the lowest contamination levels. Biodegradability tests showed near-complete degradation (>90%) of POPs in surface water and mallow plant matrices over 28 days. In contrast, other matrices failed to exceed the 60% degradation threshold, classifying them as non-biodegradable.
AbdulraheemKAAdeniranJAAremuAS (2022) Transport modelling of pollutants emitted from Guinea Savannah vegetation fire. International Journal of Environmental Studies 81(10): 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207233.2022.2069889
2.
AckersonJP (2018) Soil Sampling Guidelines. The education store. edustore.purdue.edu.
3.
AdesinaOAAdesinaAOAdeniranJA (2020) Level of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emission in the ambient air and residual ash from a typical MSWopen burning site in Nigeria. Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy, 2: 105–111. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42768-020-00035-y
4.
AdeyiAAOyelekeP (2017) Heavy metals and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil from e-waste dumpsites in Lagos and Ibadan, Nigeria. Journal of Health and Pollution7(15): 71–84. https://doi.org/10.5696/2156-9614-7.15.71
5.
AfsaSHamdenKLara MartinPA, et al. (2020) Occurrence of 40 pharmaceutically active compounds in hospital and urban wastewaters and their contribution to Mahdia coastal seawater contamination. Environmental Science and Pollution Research 27: 1941–1955. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06866-5
6.
AfsaSSallemOFAbdeljelilNB, et al. (2021) In vivo toxicities of the hospital effluent in Mahdia Tunisia. Journal of Water and Health19(3): 499–511. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2021.024
7.
AfsaSVieiraMNogueiraAF, et al. (2022) A multi-biomarker approach for the early assessment of the toxicity of hospital wastewater using the freshwater organism Daphnia magna. Environmental Science and Pollution Research29(13): 19132–19147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16977-7
8.
AraluCCOkoyeP-ACAkpomieKG, et al. (2022) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil situated around solid waste dumpsite in Awka, Nigeria. Toxin Reviews42: 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/15569543.2021.2022700
9.
AsseyGEMogusuE (2023) Effects of persistent organic pollutants on environment, health and mountains: A review. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Science19(1): 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1680/jenes.22.00089
10.
Ávila-SierraAVicariaJMJurado-AlamedaE, et al. (2020) Removal of food soil by ozone-based oxidation processes: Cleaning and wastewater degradation in a single step. Journal of Food Engineering, 272: 109803. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2019.109803
11.
BalgobinASinghNR (2019) Source apportionment and seasonal cancer risk of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons of sediments in a multi-use coastal environment containing a Ramsar wetland, for a Caribbean Island. Science of the Total Environment664: 474–486. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.031
BirchHHammershøjRMayerP (2018) Determining biodegradation kinetics of hydrocarbons at low concentrations: Covering 5 and 9 orders of magnitude of Kow and Kaw. Environmental Science and Technology52(4): 2143–2151. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.7b05624
14.
BlairBDCragoJPHedmanCJ, et al. (2013) Pharmaceuticals and personal care products found in the Great Lakes above concentrations of environmental concern. Chemosphere93: 2116–2123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.07.057
15.
BukowskaBMokraKMichałowiczJ (2022) Benzo[a]pyrene—Environmental occurrence, human exposure, and mechanisms of toxicity. International Journal of Molecular Sciences23(11): 6348. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23116348
16.
ÇelikGStolteSMüllerS, et al. (2023). Environmental persistence assessment of heterocyclic polyaromatic hydrocarbons—Ultimate and primary biodegradability using adapted and non-adapted microbial communities. Journal of Hazardous Materials460: 132370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132370
17.
ChaabaneW (2019) Solid waste management in tourism destinations in Tunisia: Diagnostic and improvement approaches. Dissertation, University of Rostock. https://doi.org/10.18453/rosdok_id00002705. accessed 26 November 2023
18.
ChangY-SKongS-BIkonomouMG (1999) PCBs contributions to the total TEQ released from Korean municipal and industrial waste incinerators. Chemosphere39(15): 2629–2640. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0045-6535(99)00175-7
19.
ChenXChenYHuangC, et al. (2019) Neurodevelopmental toxicity assessments of alkyl phenanthrene and Dechlorane Plus co-exposure in zebrafish. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety180: 762–769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2019.05.066
20.
ChenSDingXZhengT, et al. (2025) The CYP1A1/chimeric RNA RPL17-C18orf32 axis mediates Benzo[ghi]perylene induced-respiratory toxicity and DNA damage in vitro and in vivo. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety306: 119377. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2025.119377
21.
ChenHZhangZTianF, et al. (2018) The effect of pH on the acute toxicity of phenanthrene in a marine microalgae Chlorella salina. Scientific Reports8(1): 17577. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-35686-9
22.
ComberMIHden HaanKHDjemelN, et al. (2012) Primary Biodegradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Seawater. Concawe: Brussels, Report No. 10/12.
23.
CuiZGeNZhangA, et al. (2015) Comprehensive determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Chinese herbal medicines by solid phase extraction and gas chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry. Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry407(7): 1989–1997. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00216-015-8463-2
24.
De MarcoGAfsaSGalatiM, et al. (2022) Comparison of cellular mechanisms induced by pharmaceutical exposure to caffeine and its combination with salicylic acid in mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology93: 103888. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2022.103888
25.
DingLCaiBWangS, et al. (2018) Concentrations, spatial distributions, and congener profiles of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans around original plastic solid waste recovery sites in China. Environmental Pollution242: 692–699. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.07.035
26.
ECHA (2023) European chemicals agency, guidance on information requirements and chemical safety assessment—Chapter R.7b—Endpoint specific guidance—Version 5.0, Helsinki, Finland: European Chemicals Agency, 2023. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2823/161062
27.
EnglandEMorrisJBussyC, et al. (2024) The key characteristics of cardiotoxicity for the pervasive pollutant phenanthrene. Journal of Hazardous Materials469: 133853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.133853
28.
EPA US (2005) Furniture flame retardancy partnership: Environmental profiles of chemical flameretardant alternatives for low-density polyurethane foam (EPA 742‑R‑05‑002A: Volume 1, 153 pp.; EPA 742‑R‑05‑002B: Volume 2, Appendices, 393 pp.). U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. http://www.epa.gov/dfe
29.
EssumangDKAdokohCKAfriyieJ, et al. (2009) Source assessment and analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH’s) in the Oblogo waste disposal sites and some water bodies in and around the Accra Metropolis of Ghana. Journal of Water Resource and Protection1: 456–468. doi:10.4236/jwarp.2009.16055.
30.
FenniFSunyer-CaldúAMansourHB, et al. (2022) Contaminants of emerging concern in marine areas: first evidence of UV filters and paraben preservatives in seawater and sediment on the eastern coast of Tunisia. Environmental Pollution309: 119749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119749
31.
FenniFSunyer-CaldúAMansourHB, et al. (2025) Occurrence and risks of pharmaceuticals in Mahdia’s coastline (Tunisia): Distribution, antibiotic resistance, and ecotoxicological impact. Environmental Science and Pollution Research32(30): 18419–18433. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-025-36743-3
32.
Fernandez-MarcosML (2022) Potentially toxic substances and associated risks in soils affected by wildfires: A review. Toxics10(1): 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxics10010031
33.
GiglFAbdullahiMBarnardM, et al. (2024) Interactions between phenanthrene exposure and historical chemical stress: Implications for fitness and ecological resilience of the sentinel species Daphnia magna. Science of the Total Environment949: 174963. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174963
34.
GongPXuHWangX, et al. (2025) Release of organochlorine pollutants from forest fires: 2. Possible long-term migration from ash and burnt soil. Environmental Pollution385: 127116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2025.127116
GratiaEWeekersFMargesinR, et al. (2006) Selection of a cold-adopted bacterium for bioremediation of wastewater at low temperature. Extremophiles13: 763–768. https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00792-009-0264-0
37.
GuTYinCMaW, et al. (2019) Municipal solid waste incineration in a packed bed: A comprehensive modeling study with experimental validation. Applied Energy247: 127–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.04.014
38.
HammershøjRBirchHRedmanAD, et al. (2019) Mixture effects on biodegradation kinetics of hydrocarbons in surface water: Increasing concentrations inhibited degradation whereas multiple substrates did not. Environmental Science & Technology53(6): 3087–3094. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.9b00638
39.
HeFHuSLiuR, et al. (2023) Decoding the biological toxicity of phenanthrene on intestinal cells of Eisenia fetida: Effects, toxicity pathways and corresponding mechanisms. Science of the Total Environment904: 166903. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166903
40.
HolzmannHPrehmMSSchäferA (2021) Comparison of different versions of simulation studies following OECD 309 using 14C-labelled ionic compounds—does it make a difference?Science of the Total Environment753: 142101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142101
41.
HoushaniMSalehi-LisarSYMovafeghiA, et al. (2025) Physiological and biochemical responses of maize (Zea mays) to phenanthrene toxicity. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology27(5): 1169–1183. https://doi.org/10.48311/jast.2025.16818
42.
HsuY-CChangS-HChangMB (2021) Emissions of PAHs, PCDD/Fs, dl-PCBs, chlorophenols and chlorobenzenes from municipal waste incinerator cofiring industrial waste. Chemosphere280: 130645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.130645
43.
HuangJFangLZhangS, et al. (2021) Long-term exposure to environmental levels of phenanthrene disrupts spermatogenesis in male mice. Environmental Pollution, 285: 117488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.117488
44.
IaniriGFratianniAAvinoP, et al. (2024) Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from atmospheric deposition in Malva sylvestris leaves using Gas Chromatography with Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS). Atmosphere15: 1402. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos15121402
JebaraATurcoVLFaggioC, et al. (2021a) Monitoring of environmental Hg occurrence in Tunisian coastal areas. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health18(10): 5202. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105202
49.
JebaraATurcoVLPotortìAG, et al. (2021b) Organic pollutants in marine samples from Tunisian coast: Occurrence and associated human health risks. Environmental Pollution271: 116266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116266
50.
JiaJBiCJinX, et al. (2021). Uptake, translocation, and risk assessment of PAHs in contaminated soil-air-vegetable systems based on a field simulation experiment. Environmental Pollution271: 116361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.116361
51.
JohanssonIvan BavelB (2003) Levels and patterns of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in incineration ashes. Science of the Total Environment311(1–3): 221–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0048-9697(03)00168-2
52.
JunkerTPaatzschCKnackerT (2010) A water-sediment screening tool for measuring biodegradation of organic chemicals. Science of the Total Environment408(18): 3803–3810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2009.11.011.
53.
KabirERRahmanMSRahmanI (2015) A review on endocrine disruptors and their possible impacts on human health. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology40: 241–258. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2015.06.009
54.
KalčíkováGPircETGotvajnAZ (2016) Aerobic and anaerobic biodegradation potential of leachate from old active landfill. Desalination and Water Treatment57(19): 8619–8625. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2015.1024749.
55.
KhanQFShabirMGhafoorGZ, et al. (2024) Biodegradation of POPs in contaminated land/water. In: AlshemmariHHashmiMZKavilYN, et al. (eds.) Contaminated Land and Water: Remediation and Management, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 101–118.
56.
KnaflaAPhillippsKABrecherRW, et al. (2006) Development of a dermal cancer slope factor for benzo[a]pyrene. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology45(2): 159–168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.02.008
57.
KosticDArsićBRanđelovićS, et al. (2019) Correlation analysis of heavy metals contents of Malva sylvestris L. Plant and its extracts from polluted and non-polluted locations in Niš, Republic of Serbia. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution230(5): 98. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-019-4153-6
LechugaMFernández-SerranoMRíosF, et al. (2022) Environmental impact assessment of nanofluids containing mixtures of surfactants and silica nanoparticles. Environmental Science and Pollution Research29(56): 84125–84136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-21598-9
60.
LiW-DYuSLuoS-M, et al. (2018) Melatonin defends mouse oocyte quality from benzo[ghi]perylene-induced deterioration. Journal of Cellular Physiology234(5): 6220–6229. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcp.27351
61.
LiYYangYYuG, et al. (2016) Emission of unintentionally produced persistent organic pollutants (UPOPs) from municipal waste incinerators in China. Chemosphere158: 17–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.05.037
LiuWLiHTianZ, et al. (2013) Spatial distribution of polychlorinated biphenyls in soil around a municipal solid waste incinerator. Journal of Environmental Sciences25(8): 1636–1642. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1001-0742(12)60234-4
64.
LiuWLShenCFZhangZ, et al. (2009) Distribution of phthalate esters in soil of e-waste recycling sites from Taizhou city in China. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology82: 665–667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-009-9699-3
65.
LiuJTanYSongE, et al. (2020) A critical review of polychlorinated biphenyls metabolism, metabolites, and their correlation with oxidative stress. Chemical Research in Toxicology33(8): 2022–2042. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrestox.0c00078
66.
MaRCottonBLichtensteigerW, et al. (2003) UV filters with antagonistic action at androgen receptors in the MDA-kb2 cell transcriptional-activation assay. Toxicological Sciences74(1): 43–50. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfg102
67.
MaleticSPBeljinJMRončevićSD, et al. (2019) State of the art and future challenges for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is sediments: sources, fate, bioavailability and remediation techniques. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 365: 467–482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2018.11.020
68.
MarrisCRKompellaSNTraffordAW, et al. (2025) The air pollutant phenanthrene disrupts calcium cycling and alters repolarization in female sheep ventricular cardiomyocytes. Physiological Reports13(16): e70471. https://doi.org/10.14814/phy2.70471
69.
MilesRADoucetteWJ (2001) Assessing the aerobic biodegradability of 14 hydrocarbons in two soils using a simple microcosm/respiration method. Chemosphere45(6–7): 1085–1090. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0045-6535(01)00012-1
MurínováSDercováKDudášováH (2014) Degradation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) by four bacterial isolates obtained from the PCB-contaminated soil and PCB-contaminated sediment. International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation, 91: 52–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibiod.2014.03.011
72.
NgaraTRZengPZhangH (2022) mibPOPdb: an online database for microbial biodegradation of persistent organic pollutants. iMeta. https://doi.org/10.1002/imt2.45
73.
NishimuraCHoriiYTanakaS, et al. (2017) Occurrence, profiles, and toxic equivalents of chlorinated and brominated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in E-waste open burning soils. Environmental Pollution225: 252–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2016.10.088
74.
NyholmJRLundbergCAnderssonPL (2010) Biodegradation kinetics of selected brominated flame retardants in aerobic and anaerobic soil. Environmental Pollution158(6): 2235–2240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.02.010.
75.
OECD 301 (1992) OECD Guidelines for testing chemicals. Test No. 301: Ready Biodegradability. In: Adopted by the Council on 17th July 1992. Paris, France: OECD Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264070349-en
76.
OkechukwuVUOmokpariolaDOOnwukemeVI, et al. (2021) Pollution investigation and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil and water from selected dumpsite locations in rivers and Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Environmental Analysis Health and Toxicology36(4): Article e2021023. https://doi.org/10.5620/eaht.2021023
OlayinkaOOAdedejiOHIpeaiyedaAR (2015) Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) on selected dumpsites in Abeokuta Metropolis, SW, Nigeria. Applied Environmental Research 37(3): 33–48. https://doi.org/10.35762/aer.2015.37.3.3
79.
OliveiraMSlezakovaKDelerue-MatosC, et al. (2019) Children environmental exposure to particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and biomonitoring in school environments: a review on indoor and outdoor exposure levels, major sources and health impacts. Environment International124: 180–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.12.052
80.
OsE. (2019). Concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from selected dumpsites within Port Harcourt metropolis, rivers state, Niger Delta, Nigeria. International Journal of Environmental Sciences & Natural Resources21(4): 111–116. https://doi.org/10.19080/ijesnr.2019.21.556066
81.
PanYYangLZhouJ, et al. (2013) Characteristics of dioxins content in fly ash from municipal solid waste incinerators in China. Chemosphere92(7): 765–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.04.003
82.
PaulZAMallaATDarMA, et al. (2023) Phytochemistry and pharmacological activity of Malva sylvestris L: a detailed insight. Combinatorial Chemistry & High Throughput Screening26(16): 2309–2322. https://doi.org/10.2174/0113862073269336231009110313
83.
PengNLiuZLiuT, et al. (2016) Emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during hydrothermally treated municipal solid waste combustion for energy generation. Applied Energy184: 396–403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2016.10.028
84.
PirardCEppeGMassartA-C, et al. (2005) Environmental and human impact of an old-timer incinerator in terms of dioxin and PCB level: a case study. Environmental Science & Technology39(13): 4721–4728. https://doi.org/10.1021/es0481981
85.
PirardCFocantJFMassartAC, et al. (2004) Assessment of the impact of an old MSWI. Part1: Level of PCDD/Fs and PCBs in surrounding soils and eggs. Organohalogen Compounds66: 2059–2063.
86.
QGIS.org. (2025) QGIS Geographic Information System. QGIS Association. Available at: http://www.qgis.org
87.
RamachandraTVBharathHAKulkarniG, et al. (2018) Municipal solid waste: generation, composition and GHG emissions in Bangalore, India. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews82: 1122–1136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.085
RejebOAfsaSToumiD, et al. (2025) Assessment of the contribution of municipal solid waste dumping coupled with open burning to the contamination of the surrounding environment by plasticizers. Waste Management204: 114909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2025.114909
90.
RíosFCaparrós-SalvadorFLechugaM, et al. (2024) Complete biodegradability assessment of polyoxyethylene glycerol ester non-ionic surfactant: aerobic, anaerobic, combined biodegradation and inhibitory effects. Water Resources248: 120857. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2023.120857
91.
RíosFLechugaMFernández-SerranoM, et al. (2017) Aerobic biodegradation of amphoteric amine-oxide-based surfactants: effect of molecular structure, initial surfactant concentration and pH. Chemosphere171:324–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.12.070
92.
RíosFTapia-NavarroCMartínez-GallegosJF, et al. (2025) Joint aerobic biodegradation of synthetic and natural textile microfibers and laundry surfactants. Journal ofHazardous Materials482: 136619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2024.136619
93.
SaittaMDi BellaGFedeMR, et al. (2017) Gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry multi-residual analysis of contaminants in Italian honey samples. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A, 34: 800–808. https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2017.1292054
94.
ScarlatNMotolaVDallemandJF, et al. (2015) Evaluation of energy potential of Municipal Solid Waste from African urban areas. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 50: 1269–1286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.05.067
95.
SibiyaIPomaGCuykxM, et al. (2019) Targeted and non-target screening of persistent organic pollutants and organophosphorus flame retardants in leachate and sediment from landfill sites in Gauteng Province, South Africa. Science of the Total Environment653: 1231–1239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.10.356
96.
SimonichSLHitesRA (1994) Importance of vegetation in removing polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from the atmosphere. Nature, 370(6484): 49–51. https://doi.org/10.1038/370049a0.
97.
SonibareOOAdeniranJABelloIS (2019) Landfill air and odour emissions from an integrated waste management facility. Journal of Environmental Health Science and Engineering17(1): 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-018-00322-1
98.
SunCWangLLinX, et al. (2022) Low-carbon stabilization/solidification of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy4: 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42768-022-00102-6
99.
Sweepnet (2014) Report on the solid waste management in TUNISIA. Bonn & Eschborn, Germany: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, on behalf of the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), and the Regional Solid Waste Exchange of Information and Expertise Network in the MENA Region (SWEEP‑Net). https://www.retechgermany.net/fileadmin/retech/05_mediathek/laenderinformationen/Tunesien_laenderprofile_sweep_net.pdf
100.
TangHP-o (2013) Recent development in analysis of persistent organic pollutants under the Stockholm Convention. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 45: 48–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2013.01.005
101.
TarigholizadehSSushkovaSRajputVD, et al. (2023) Transfer and degradation of PAHs in the soil–plant system: a review. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry72(1): 46–64. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jafc.3c05589
102.
TerziMAcemiAErgülHA, et al. (2016) PAH and PCB levels in Malva sylvestris L. Specimens collected from Kocaeli, Turkey. Biomonitoring, 2(1): 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1515/bimo-2015-0007
103.
TezelUŞepitciB (2019) Simultaneous screening of biodegradability of priority and emerging contaminants as a mixture. Sakarya University Journal of Science23(2): 184–192. https://doi.org/10.16984/saufenbilder.413597
104.
TrabelsiABHZaafouriKEl AsmiAM (2020) Waste and biomass management in Tunisia: current situation and opportunities for renewable fuels production. In: Venice 20 8th International symposium on energy from biomass and waste, (16–19 November 2020, held virtually as part of the Venice 2020 Symposium, coordinated from Venice, Italy). https://www.cisapublisher.com
105.
UkiweLNEgereonuUUNjokuPC, et al. (2013) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons degradation techniques: a review. International Journal of Chemistry5(4), 43–55. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijc.v5n4p43
106.
UnverMCUguluIDurkanN, et al. (2015) Heavy metal contents of Malva sylvestris sold as edible greens in the local markets of Izmir. Ekoloji24(96): 13–25. https://doi.org/10.5053/ekoloji.2015.01
107.
U.S. EPA (1993) Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS)—“Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)” (CAS No. 50-32-8).
108.
U.S. EPA (1995) Method 525.2: Determination of Organic Compounds in Drinking Water by Liquid-Solid Extraction and Capillary Column Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry, Revision 2.0. Cincinnati, OH: U.S
109.
VaneCHarrisonIKimA (2007) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediments from the Mersey Estuary, U.K. Science of the Total Environment374(1): 112–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2006.12.036
110.
VermaSKMastoREGautamS, et al. (2015) Investigations on PAHs and trace elements in coal and its combustion residues from a power plant. Fuel162: 138–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2015.09.005
111.
WangYLiSYangS, et al. (2022) Exposure to phenanthrene affects oocyte meiosis by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress. Cell Proliferation 56(1): e13335. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpr.13335
112.
World Health Organization (WHO) (1998) Polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons. In: Guidelines for drinking-water quality, Health criteria and other supporting information, vol. 2. Geneva: World Health Organization, pp.123–152.
113.
YaarSFilatovaTSEnglandE, et al. (2023) Global air pollutant phenanthrene and arrhythmic outcomes in a mouse model. Environmental Health Perspectives131(11): 117002. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp12775
114.
YadavICDeviNLLiJ, et al. (2018) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in house dust and surface soil in major urban regions of Nepal: implication on source apportionment and toxicological effect. Science of the Total Environment616: 223–235. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.10.313
115.
Zaragoza-OjedaMEguía-AguilarPPerezpeña-DíazcontiM, et al. (2016) Benzo[ghi]perylene activates the AHR pathway to exert biological effects on the NL-20 human bronchial cell line. Toxicology Letters256: 64–76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2016.05.023
116.
ZhangHPanLTaoY (2014) Toxicity assessment of environmental pollutant phenanthrene in clam Venerupis philippinarum using oxidative stress biomarkers. Environmental Toxicology and Pharmacology37(2): 697–704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2014.01.018
117.
ZhaoLZhangF-SHaoZ, et al. (2008) Levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in different types of hospital waste incinerator ashes. Science of the Total Environment397(1–3): 24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2008.02.040
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
