Fly ash is the byproduct of municipal solid waste incineration, which has become a major environmental concern because of its pollution risk and a huge amount. Specifically, incineration makes up 82.5% of municipal solid waste treatment in China in the end of 2023. Fly ash contains heavy metals, soluble salts, and dioxins that pose severe risks to the environment and human health. This review focuses on the aspects of the various materials in fly ash and modern approaches of material recovery from fly ash. Several treatment methods and novel approaches are described. The application of predictive retrosynthesis as a novel approach is recommended to enhance fly ash treatment. Desired materials could be extracted, and undesired products torn apart by the design of the chemical reactions that inform the technical process. Finally, this review recognizes the necessity for innovative measures to manage fly ash and foster further research and technological improvements, in this exceptional area of environmental care and waste disposal.
AbbasiKRShahbazMZhangJ, et al (2022) Analyze the environmental sustainability factors of China: The role of fossil fuel energy and renewable energy. Renewable Energy187: 390–402.
2.
AhmaruzzamanM (2010) A review on the utilization of fly ash. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science36: 327–363.
3.
AjorlooMGhodratMScottJ, et al (2022) Heavy metals removal/stabilization from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: a review and recent trends. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management24: 1693–1717.
4.
AlamQLazaroASchollbachK, et al (2020) Chemical speciation, distribution and leaching behavior of chlorides from municipal solid waste incineration bottom ash. Chemosphere241: 124985.
5.
AlterarySSMareiNH (2021) Fly ash properties, characterization, and applications: A review. Journal of King Saud University-Science33: 101536.
6.
AmranMDebbarmaSOzbakkalogluT (2021a) Fly ash-based eco-friendly geopolymer concrete: A critical review of the long-term durability properties. Construction and Building Materials270: 121857.
7.
AmranMFediukRMuraliG, et al (2021b) Fly ash-based eco-efficient concretes: A comprehensive review of the short-term properties. Materials14: 4264.
8.
AnJW (2015) Characterization of Waste-To-Energy (WTE) Bottom and Fly Ashes in Cementitious Materials. Electronic Theses and Dissertations 5156. https://stars.library.ucf.edu/etd/5156
9.
AndreolaFBarbieriLHreglichS, et al (2008) Reuse of incinerator bottom and fly ashes to obtain glassy materials. Journal of Hazardous Materials153: 1270–1274.
10.
AndrewRM (2018) Global CO2 emissions from cement production. Earth System Science Data10: 195–217.
11.
AstrupTMuntoniAPolettiniA, et al (2016) Treatment and reuse of incineration bottom ash. Environmental materials and waste. Elsevier, 607–645.
12.
AtanesECuesta-GarcíaBNieto-MárquezA, et al (2019) A mixed separation-immobilization method for soluble salts removal and stabilization of heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Journal of Environmental Management240: 359–367.
13.
BandarraBSQuinaMJ (2021) Municipal Solid Waste Incineration and Sustainable Development. In: GaoY-JSongWLiuJL, et al (eds) Advances in Sustainable Energy: Policy, Materials and Devices. Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp.653–680.
14.
BarghiMChoiS-DKwonH-O, et al (2016) Influence of non-detect data-handling on toxic equivalency quantities of PCDD/Fs and dioxin-like PCBs: A case study of major fish species purchased in Korea. Environmental Pollution214: 532–538.
15.
BayusenoAP (2006) Mineral phases in raw and processed municipal waste incineration residues: Towards a chemical stabilisation and fixation of heavy metals. University, Dissertion, Bochum, 2006.
16.
BenhelalEZahediGShamsaeiE, et al (2013) Global strategies and potentials to curb CO2 emissions in cement industry. Journal of Cleaner Production51: 142–161.
17.
BrännvallEKumpieneJ (2016) Fly ash in landfill top covers – A review. Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts18: 11–21.
18.
CaredduNMeddaPSarritzuC, et al (2015) Particulate matter in fly-ash landfills: An abatement technology using anionic flocculant. Journal of Cleaner Production102: 477–484.
19.
CarolinCFKumarPSSaravananA, et al (2017) Efficient techniques for the removal of toxic heavy metals from aquatic environment: A review. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering5: 2782–2799.
20.
ChangW (2016) Study on the Washing Process and Recycling of MSWI Fly Ash. Zhejiang: Zhejiang University.
21.
ChangY-MFanW-PDaiW-C, et al (2011) Characteristics of PCDD/F content in fly ash discharged from municipal solid waste incinerators. Journal of Hazardous Materials192: 521–529.
22.
ChenDM-CBodirskyBLKruegerT, et al (2020) The world’s growing municipal solid waste: Trends and impacts. Environmental Research Letters15: 074021.
23.
ChenKHanSMengF, et al (2024) Acid controlled washing of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: Extraction of calcium inhibiting heavy metals and reaction kinetics. Science of The Total Environment909: 168599.
24.
ChenYZhaoMLvY, et al (2023) Utilization of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash as construction materials based on geopolymerization. Resources, Conservation & Recycling Advances19: 200162.
25.
ChiangK-YHuY-H (2010) Water washing effects on metals emission reduction during municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) fly ash melting process. Waste Management30: 831–838.
26.
ChoBHNamBHAnJ, et al (2020) Municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) ashes as construction materials – A review. Materials13: 3143.
27.
ChoYKJungSHChoiYC (2019) Effects of chemical composition of fly ash on compressive strength of fly ash cement mortar. Construction and Building Materials204: 255–264.
28.
ChoiK-ILeeD-H (2006) PCDD/DF in leachates from Korean MSW landfills. Chemosphere63: 1353–1360.
29.
ChoiMKKangJ-HYoonY-S, et al (2023) Evaluating the recycling potential of ashes discharged from waste incineration facilities and its dependency on pretreatment efficiency in Korea. Waste Management167: 141–149.
30.
ChuY-SDavaabalBKimD-S, et al (2019) Reactivity of fly ashes milled in different milling devices. Reviews on Advanced Materials Science58: 179–188.
31.
ChuaiXYangQZhangT, et al (2022) Speciation and leaching characteristics of heavy metals from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Fuel328: 125338.
32.
ColangeloFCioffiRMontagnaroF, et al (2012) Soluble salt removal from MSWI fly ash and its stabilization for safer disposal and recovery as road basement material. Waste Management32: 1179–1185.
33.
CousinsAWardhaughLFeronP (2011) A survey of process flow sheet modifications for energy efficient CO2 capture from flue gases using chemical absorption. International Journal of Greenhouse Gas Control5: 605–619.
34.
DananjayanRRTKandasamyPAndimuthuR (2016) Direct mineral carbonation of coal fly ash for CO2 sequestration. Journal of Cleaner Production112: 4173–4182.
35.
De Oliveira MendesGMurtaHMValadaresRV, et al (2020) Oxalic acid is more efficient than sulfuric acid for rock phosphate solubilization. Minerals Engineering155: 106458.
36.
De YoreoJMandrusDSoderholmL, et al (2016) Basic Research Needs Workshop on Synthesis Science for Energy Relevant Technology. USDOE Office of Science.
37.
DonatelloSTyrerMCheesemanCR (2010) EU landfill waste acceptance criteria and EU Hazardous Waste Directive compliance testing of incinerated sewage sludge ash. Waste Management30: 63–71.
38.
DungNTChangT-PChenC-T (2015) Circulating fluidized bed combustion fly ash-activated slag concrete as novel construction material. ACI Materials Journal112: 51686910.
39.
EbertBASteenariB-MGeikerMR, et al (2020) Screening of untreated municipal solid waste incineration fly ash for use in cement-based materials: Chemical and physical properties. SN Applied Sciences2: 802.
40.
ElbazAAboulfotohADohdohA, et al (2019) Review of beneficial uses of cement kiln dust (CKD), fly ash (FA) and their mixture. Journal of Materials and Environmental Science10: 1062–1073.
41.
ElomaaHSeiskoSLehtolaJ, et al (2019) A study on selective leaching of heavy metals vs. iron from fly ash. Journal of Material Cycles and Waste Management21: 1004–1013.
42.
FanCWangBZhangT (2018) Review on cement stabilization/solidification of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering2018: 5120649.
43.
FanXYuanRGanM, et al (2023) Subcritical hydrothermal treatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: A review. Science of The Total Environment865: 160745.
44.
FerrarisMSalvoMVentrellaA, et al (2009) Use of vitrified MSWI bottom ashes for concrete production. Waste Management29: 1041–1047.
45.
FerraroAFarinaIRaceM, et al (2019) Pre-treatments of MSWI fly-ashes: A comprehensive review to determine optimal conditions for their reuse and/or environmentally sustainable disposal. Reviews in Environmental Science and Bio/Technology18: 453–471.
46.
FerreiraCRibeiroAOttosenL (2003a) Heavy metals in MSW incineration fly ashes. Journal de Physique IV (Proceedings)107: 463–466.
47.
FerreiraCRibeiroAOttosenL (2003b) Possible applications for municipal solid waste fly ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials96: 201–216.
48.
FitchABalderas-HernandezPIbanezJG (2022) Electrochemical technologies combined with physical, biological, and chemical processes for the treatment of pollutants and wastes: A review. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering10: 107810.
49.
GaneshKNZhangDMillerSJ, et al. (2021) Green chemistry: A framework for a sustainable future. ACS Publications, American Chemical Society 1801–1805. DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.1c03011.
50.
GengCLiuJWuS, et al (2020) Novel method for comprehensive utilization of MSWI fly ash through co-reduction with red mud to prepare crude alloy and cleaned slag. Journal of Hazardous Materials384: 121315.
51.
GerassimidouSVelisCAWilliamsPT, et al (2021) Chlorine in waste-derived solid recovered fuel (SRF), co-combusted in cement kilns: A systematic review of sources, reactions, fate and implications. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology51: 140–186.
52.
GinésOChimenosJVizcarroA, et al (2009) Combined use of MSWI bottom ash and fly ash as aggregate in concrete formulation: Environmental and mechanical considerations. Journal of Hazardous Materials169: 643–650.
53.
GoriM (2010) Characterization and treatment options of residues from waste-to-energy plants. DOI: 10.58015/gori-manuela_phd2010-04-29.
54.
Grabias-BlicharzEFranusW (2023) A critical review on mechanochemical processing of fly ash and fly ash-derived materials. Science of The Total Environment860: 160529.
55.
GuduruRKTiwariNShahH (2024) CO2 capture using fly ash. In: AhmadMRDilshadMRHaiderB, et al. (eds.) From Waste to Wealth. Springer NatureSingapore, pp.577–601.
56.
GuoJBoXXieY, et al (2023) Health effects of future dioxins emission mitigation from Chinese municipal solid waste incinerators. Journal of Environmental Management345: 118805.
57.
GuoXLShiHSHuangJB (2017) Effects of cement additives on alinite cement-based materials from municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash. Key Engineering Materials727: 1046–1053.
58.
HaberlJKoralewskaRSchlumbergerS, et al (2018) Quantification of main and trace metal components in the fly ash of waste-to-energy plants located in Germany and Switzerland: An overview and comparison of concentration fluctuations within and between several plants with particular focus on valuable metals. Waste Management75: 361–371.
59.
HafezHKurdaRCheungWM, et al (2020) Comparative life cycle assessment between imported and recovered fly ash for blended cement concrete in the UK. Journal of Cleaner Production244: 118722.
60.
HaiyingZYoucaiZJingyuQ (2007) Study on use of MSWI fly ash in ceramic tile. Journal of Hazardous Materials141: 106–114.
61.
HaiyingZYoucaiZJingyuQ (2010) Characterization of heavy metals in fly ash from municipal solid waste incinerators in Shanghai. Process Safety and Environmental Protection88: 114–124.
62.
HamS-YKimY-JLeeD-H (2008) Leaching characteristics of PCDDs/DFs and dioxin-like PCBs from landfills containing municipal solid waste and incineration residues. Chemosphere70: 1685–1693.
63.
HamadaHMAbedFAl-SadoonZA, et al (2024) Enhancing pozzolanic activity of fly ash via dry and wet milling: A comparative study for sustainable construction material enhancement. Journal of CO2 Utilization83: 102811.
64.
HeDHuHJiaoF, et al (2023) Thermal separation of heavy metals from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal467: 143344.
65.
HeP-JZhangHZhangC-G, et al (2004) Characteristics of air pollution control residues of MSW incineration plant in Shanghai. Journal of Hazardous Materials116: 229–237.
66.
HeXZhengZMaM, et al (2020) New treatment technology: The use of wet-milling concrete slurry waste to substitute cement. Journal of Cleaner Production242: 118347.
67.
HoMTAllinsonGWWileyDE (2008) Reducing the cost of CO2 capture from flue gases using pressure swing adsorption. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research47: 4883–4890.
68.
HouXMaSWangX, et al (2024) Hydrothermal transformation of fly ash to tobermorite or katoite: Impact of Ca and Si concentration in the liquid phase without alkali activation. Ceramics International50: 17291–17301.
69.
HrovatB (2021) Synthesis of Zeolites from Waste Combustion Fly Ash and Application in NOx Emission Control. Finland: Itä-Suomen yliopisto.
70.
HuH-YLiuHShenW-Q, et al (2013) Comparison of CaO’s effect on the fate of heavy metals during thermal treatment of two typical types of MSWI fly ashes in China. Chemosphere93: 590–596.
71.
HuYZhangPLiJ, et al (2015) Stabilization and separation of heavy metals in incineration fly ash during the hydrothermal treatment process. Journal of Hazardous Materials299: 149–157.
72.
HuangBGanMJiZ, et al (2022) Recent progress on the thermal treatment and resource utilization technologies of municipal waste incineration fly ash: A review. Process Safety and Environmental Protection159: 547–565.
73.
HuangYQiuYZhangZ, et al (2024) A perspective on molecular recognition technology for recovering critical metals from minerals and processing wastes. Separation and Purification Technology347: 127734.
74.
HuberFBlasenbauerDMallowO, et al (2016) Thermal co-treatment of combustible hazardous waste and waste incineration fly ash in a rotary kiln. Waste Management58: 181–190.
75.
HuberFHerzelHAdamC, et al (2018) Combined disc pelletisation and thermal treatment of MSWI fly ash. Waste Management73: 381–391.
76.
JafDKIAbdulrahmanASAbdulrahmanPI, et al (2023) Effitioned soft computing models to evaluate the impact of silicon dioxide (SiO2) to calcium oxide (CaO) ratio in fly ash on the compressive strength of concrete. Journal of Building Engineering74: 106820.
77.
JiLYuHZhangR, et al (2019) Effects of fly ash properties on carbonation efficiency in CO2 mineralisation. Fuel Processing Technology188: 79–88.
78.
JiangXZhaoYYanJ (2022) Disposal technology and new progress for dioxins and heavy metals in fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration: A critical review. Environmental Pollution311: 119878.
79.
JiaoFZhangLDongZ, et al (2016) Study on the species of heavy metals in MSW incineration fly ash and their leaching behavior. Fuel Processing Technology152: 108–115.
80.
JinSZhaoZJiangS, et al (2021) Comparison and summary of relevant standards for comprehensive utilization of fly ash at home and abroad. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science621: 012006.
81.
JinY-QMaX-JJiangX-G, et al (2013) Effects of hydrothermal treatment on the major heavy metals in fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration. Energy & Fuels27: 394–400.
82.
JingXChangW (2015) Review for treatment and application of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Journal of Zhejiang University of Technology43: 7–17.
83.
Kalinowska-WichrowskaKPawluczukEBołtrykM, et al (2022) The performance of concrete made with secondary products – Recycled coarse aggregates, recycled cement mortar, and fly ash–slag mix. Materials15: 1438.
84.
KalmykovaYFedjeKK (2013) Phosphorus recovery from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Waste Management33: 1403–1410.
85.
KangDSonJYooY, et al (2020) Heavy-metal reduction and solidification in municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash using water, NaOH, KOH, and NH4OH in combination with CO2 uptake procedure. Chemical Engineering Journal380: 122534.
86.
KangDYooYParkJ (2021) Stabilization of heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash via CO2 uptake procedure by using various weak acids. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry94: 472–481.
87.
KhanAHLópez-MaldonadoEAKhanNA, et al (2022) Current solid waste management strategies and energy recovery in developing countries – State of art review. Chemosphere291: 133088.
88.
KizinievičOGencelOKizinievičV, et al (2023) Recycling of dolomite powder in clay bricks: Effects on characteristics and gas release. Construction and Building Materials404: 133217.
89.
KoikeYFujiiKSaitoR, et al (2021) Chemical state analysis of heavy metals and radioactive cesium in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash contaminated with radioactive cesium released by the FDNPP accident. Analytical Sciences37: 1565–1570.
90.
KosmulskiMGustafssonJRosenholmJB (2004) Thermal stability of low temperature ionic liquids revisited. Thermochimica Acta412: 47–53.
91.
KumarSBhattacharyyaJVaidyaA, et al (2009) Assessment of the status of municipal solid waste management in metro cities, state capitals, class I cities, and class II towns in India: An insight. Waste Management29: 883–895.
92.
KwonYLeeSBaeJ, et al (2024) Evaluation of incinerator performance and policy framework for effective waste management and energy recovery: A case study of South Korea. Sustainability16: 448.
93.
LamprisC (2013) Solidification/Stabilisation of Air Pollution Control Residues from Municipal Solid Waste Incineration. Imperial College London.
94.
LanTMengYJuT, et al (2022) Synthesis and application of geopolymers from municipal waste incineration fly ash (MSWI FA) as raw ingredient – A review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling182: 106308.
95.
LecknerBLindF (2020) Combustion of municipal solid waste in fluidized bed or on grate – A comparison. Waste Management109: 94–108.
96.
LedererJTrinkelVFellnerJ (2017) Wide-scale utilization of MSWI fly ashes in cement production and its impact on average heavy metal contents in cements: The case of Austria. Waste Management60: 247–258.
97.
LiBDengZWangW, et al (2017) Degradation characteristics of dioxin in the fly ash by washing and ball-milling treatment. Journal of Hazardous Materials339: 191–199.
98.
LiCZhouKQinW, et al (2019) A review on heavy metals contamination in soil: effects, sources, and remediation techniques. Soil and Sediment Contamination: An International Journal28: 380–394.
99.
LiJLuWLiJ, et al (2023a) Towards understanding of internal mechanism of coal reactivity enhancement after thermal decomposition at low temperature. Fuel337: 127118.
100.
LiJMaZGuoY, et al (2024a) In-depth analysis of macro-properties and micro-mechanism of eco-friendly geopolymer based on typical circulating fluidized bed fly ash. Journal of Building Engineering95: 110074.
101.
LiMXiangJHuS, et al (2004) Characterization of solid residues from municipal solid waste incinerator. Fuel83: 1397–1405.
102.
LiWYanDLiL, et al (2023b) Review of thermal treatments for the degradation of dioxins in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: Proposing a suitable method for large-scale processing. Science of The Total Environment875: 162565.
103.
LiXChenQZhouY, et al (2014) Stabilization of heavy metals in MSWI fly ash using silica fume. Waste Management34: 2494–2504.
104.
LiXSunYLiW, et al (2024b) Solidification/stabilization pre-treatment coupled with landfill disposal of heavy metals in MSWI fly ash in China: A systematic review. Journal of Hazardous Materials: 135479.
105.
LiXZhangT-A (2022) Study of Red Mud Desulfurization and External Field Action. Northeastern University. DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-1180976/v1.
106.
LinXMaYChenT, et al (2022) PCDD/Fs and heavy metals in the vicinity of landfill used for MSWI fly ash disposal: Pollutant distribution and environmental impact assessment. Environmental Pollution312: 120083.
107.
LinakWPYooJ-IWassonSJ, et al (2007) Ultrafine ash aerosols from coal combustion: Characterization and health effects. Proceedings of the Combustion Institute31: 1929–1937.
108.
LiuFLiuHYangN, et al (2021) Comparative study of municipal solid waste incinerator fly ash reutilization in China: Environmental and economic performances. Resources, Conservation and Recycling169: 105541.
109.
LiuFLiuH-QWeiG-X, et al (2018) Characteristics and treatment methods of medical waste incinerator fly ash: A review. Processes6: 173.
110.
LiuG-RJiangX-XWangM, et al (2015) Comparison of PCDD/F levels and profiles in fly ash samples from multiple industrial thermal sources. Chemosphere133: 68–74.
111.
LiuJChenJHuangL (2015) Heavy metal removal from MSS fly ash by thermal and chlorination treatments. Scientific Reports5: 17270.
112.
LiuJLiuJHuangZ, et al (2020) Effect of fly ash as cement replacement on chloride diffusion, chloride binding capacity, and micro-properties of concrete in a water soaking environment. Applied Sciences10: 6271.
113.
LiuQWangXGaoM, et al (2022) Heavy metal leaching behaviour and long-term environmental risk assessment of cement-solidified municipal solid waste incineration fly ash in sanitary landfill. Chemosphere300: 134571.
114.
LiuXZhangHZhangX, et al (2023) Chloride removal from flue gas desulfurization wastewater through Friedel’s salt precipitation method: A review. Science of The Total Environment862: 160906.
115.
LiuYLiuY (2005) Novel incineration technology integrated with drying, pyrolysis, gasification, and combustion of MSW and ashes vitrification. Environmental Science & Technology39: 3855–3863.
116.
LongLJiangXLvG, et al (2024) Characteristics of fly ash from waste-to-energy plants adopting grate-type or circulating fluidized bed incinerators: A comparative study. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects46: 12038–12054.
117.
LuJ-WZhangSHaiJ, et al (2017) Status and perspectives of municipal solid waste incineration in China: A comparison with developed regions. Waste Management69: 170–186.
118.
LuoHChengYHeD, et al (2019) Review of leaching behavior of municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) ash. Science of The Total Environment668: 90–103.
119.
MaJQinGZhangY, et al (2018) Heavy metal removal from aqueous solutions by calcium silicate powder from waste coal fly-ash. Journal of Cleaner Production182: 776–782.
120.
MaWShiWShiY, et al (2021) Plasma vitrification and heavy metals solidification of MSW and sewage sludge incineration fly ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials408: 124809.
121.
MaXHeTDaY, et al (2024) The toxicity leaching and the cement admixtures properties with incineration fly ash of different furnace types. Langmuir40: 24870–24881.
122.
MalheiroRCamõesAFerreiraRM, et al (2015) Carbonation front progress in mortars containing fly ash considering the presence of chloride ions. Key Engineering Materials634: 214–221.
123.
MalheiroRCamõesAMeiraG, et al (2024) Impact of combined action of chloride and carbonation on cement-based materials with fly ash. Sci6: 13.
124.
MaricJVilchesTBPissotS, et al (2020) Emissions of dioxins and furans during steam gasification of Automotive Shredder residue; experiences from the Chalmers 2–4-MW indirect gasifier. Waste Management102: 114–121.
125.
MaschowskiCKruspanPGarraP, et al (2019) Physicochemical and mineralogical characterization of biomass ash from different power plants in the Upper Rhine Region. Fuel258: 116020.
126.
MeshramPPandeyBMankhandT (2014) Extraction of lithium from primary and secondary sources by pre-treatment, leaching and separation: A comprehensive review. Hydrometallurgy150: 192–208.
127.
MinKLeeJLeeD, et al (2017) Analysis of physical and chemical properties of CFBC fly ash in Vietnam for solidification. The Journal of Engineering Geology27: 245–253.
128.
MinghuaZXiuminFRovettaA, et al (2009) Municipal solid waste management in Pudong new area, China. Waste Management29: 1227–1233.
129.
MishraGDanoglidisPShahSP, et al (2023) Optimization of biochar and fly ash to improve mechanical properties and CO2 sequestration in cement mortar. Construction and Building Materials392: 132021.
130.
MuYSaffarzadehAShimaokaT (2018) Influence of ignition of waste fishbone on enhancing heavy metal stabilization in municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash. Journal of Cleaner Production189: 396–405.
131.
MukherjeeABZevenhovenRBhattacharyaP, et al (2008) Mercury flow via coal and coal utilization by-products: a global perspective. Resources, Conservation and Recycling52: 571–591.
132.
MukherjeeCDenneyJMbonimpaEG, et al (2020) A review on municipal solid waste-to-energy trends in the USA. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews119: 109512.
133.
MukherjeeSDevaguptapuSVSviripaA, et al (2018) Low-temperature ammonia decomposition catalysts for hydrogen generation. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental226: 162–181.
134.
NadalMRoviraJSánchez-SoberónF, et al (2016) Concentrations of metals and PCDD/Fs and human health risks in the vicinity of a hazardous waste landfill: A follow-up study. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal22: 519–531.
135.
NaskarJSharmaAK (2024) Resource and recycling: A comprehensive review of India’s coal landscape, characterization, and the current to future potential of fly ash from thermal power plants. International Journal of Coal Preparation and Utilization: 1–51.
136.
NathSKRandhawaNSKumarS (2022) A review on characteristics of silico-manganese slag and its utilization into construction materials. Resources, Conservation and Recycling176: 105946.
137.
NayakDKAbhilashPSinghR, et al (2022) Fly ash for sustainable construction: A review of fly ash concrete and its beneficial use case studies. Cleaner Materials6: 100143.
138.
NedkvitneENBorganØEriksenDØ, et al (2021) Variation in chemical composition of MSWI fly ash and dry scrubber residues. Waste Management126: 623–631.
139.
NgoTMVanHTThuyHNT, et al (2024) Insights into the composition and properties of fly ash emissions from a municipal solid waste power plant. Environmental Research Communications6: 025004.
140.
NguyenTTChiuC-HLinC-Y, et al (2022) Efficacy, safety, and immunogenicity of an inactivated, adjuvanted enterovirus 71 vaccine in infants and children: A multiregion, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. The Lancet399: 1708–1717.
141.
NordinNAbdullahMMABTahirMFM, et al (2016) Utilization of fly ash waste as construction material. International Journal of Conservation Science7: 161–166.
142.
OgawaNAmanoTNagaiY, et al (2021) Water repellents for the leaching control of heavy metals in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Waste Management124: 154–159.
143.
OhenojaKRissanenJKinnunenP, et al (2020) Direct carbonation of peat-wood fly ash for carbon capture and utilization in construction application. Journal of CO2 Utilization40: 101203.
144.
OkadaTTojoYTanakaN, et al (2007) Recovery of zinc and lead from fly ash from ash-melting and gasification-melting processes of MSW – Comparison and applicability of chemical leaching methods. Waste Management27: 69–80.
145.
PanJRHuangCKuoJ-J, et al (2008) Recycling MSWI bottom and fly ash as raw materials for Portland cement. Waste Management28: 1113–1118.
146.
PanYYangLZhouJ, et al (2013) Characteristics of dioxins content in fly ash from municipal solid waste incinerators in China. Chemosphere92: 765–771.
147.
PandaLDashS (2020) Characterization and utilization of coal fly ash: A review. Emerging Materials Research9: 921–934.
148.
ParkKHyunJMakenS, et al (2005) Vitrification of municipal solid waste incinerator fly ash using Brown’s gas. Energy & fuels19: 258–262.
149.
PengYBuekensATangM, et al (2018) Mechanochemical treatment of fly ash and de novo testing of milled fly ash. Environmental Science and Pollution Research25: 19092–19100.
PushpalalDKashimaH (2024) Apparent influence of anhydrite in high-calcium fly ash on compressive strength of concrete. Buildings14: 2899.
152.
QiCChenQYilmazE (2023) Machine Learning Applications in Industrial Solid Ash: Elsevier. Glyn Jones, MPS Limited, Chennai, India. https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
153.
QinJZhangYYiY, et al (2022) Carbonation of municipal solid waste gasification fly ash: effects of pre-washing and treatment period on carbon capture and heavy metal immobilization. Environmental Pollution308: 119662.
154.
QiuQChenQJiangX, et al (2019) Improving microwave-assisted hydrothermal degradation of PCDD/Fs in fly ash with added Na2HPO4 and water-washing pretreatment. Chemosphere220: 1118–1125.
155.
QiuQJiangXLvG, et al (2018) Adsorption of heavy metal ions using zeolite materials of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash modified by microwave-assisted hydrothermal treatment. Powder Technology335: 156–163.
156.
QuanWHuangWLiZ, et al (2024) A new approach for improving the properties of tailings sand autoclaved aerated concrete-From a mineralogical perspective. Construction and Building Materials441: 137584.
157.
QuinaMJBontempiEBogushA, et al (2018) Technologies for the management of MSW incineration ashes from gas cleaning: New perspectives on recovery of secondary raw materials and circular economy. Science of The Total Environment635: 526–542.
158.
QuinaMJBordadoJCQuinta-FerreiraRM (2008) Treatment and use of air pollution control residues from MSW incineration: An overview. Waste Management28: 2097–2121.
159.
QuinaMJBordadoJCQuinta-FerreiraRM (2014) Stabilisation/solidification of APC residues from MSW incineration with hydraulic binders and chemical additives. Journal of Hazardous Materials264: 107–116.
160.
RisslerJFedjeKKKlementievK, et al (2024) Zinc speciation in fly ash from MSWI using XAS-novel insights and implications. Journal of Hazardous Materials477: 135203.
161.
SabbasTPolettiniAPomiR, et al. (2003) Management of municipal solid waste incineration residues. Waste Management23: 61–88.
162.
SahooPKKimKPowellM, et al (2016) Recovery of metals and other beneficial products from coal fly ash: A sustainable approach for fly ash management. International Journal of Coal Science & Technology3: 267–283.
163.
SaikiaNKatoSKojimaT (2007) Production of cement clinkers from municipal solid waste incineration (MSWI) fly ash. Waste Management27: 1178–1189.
164.
SakaiS-IHiraokaM (2000) Municipal solid waste incinerator residue recycling by thermal processes. Waste Management20: 249–258.
165.
SamiN (2013) Immobilization of Radioactive Waste in Different Fly Ash Zeolite Cement Blends. Ain Shams University, Chemistry Department (Egypt).
166.
SantGN (2021) Upcycled “CO2-Negative” Concrete for Construction Functions. Los Angeles, CA: University of California.
167.
ShiDLiuJTongH, et al (2024) Enhancement of catalytic detoxification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration via magnetic hydroxyapatite-assisted hydrothermal treatment. Science of The Total Environment918: 170467.
168.
SidhuGPSBaliASBhardwajR (2019) Role of organic acids in mitigating cadmium toxicity in plants. In: HasanuzzamanMPrasadMNVNaharK (eds.) Cadmium Tolerance in Plants. Cambridge, UK: Academic Press, pp.255–279.
169.
SilvaRVde BritoJLynnC, et al (2019) Environmental impacts of the use of bottom ashes from municipal solid waste incineration: A review. Resources, Conservation and Recycling140: 23–35.
170.
SimkinRDSetoKCMcDonaldRI, et al (2022) Biodiversity impacts and conservation implications of urban land expansion projected to 2050. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America119: e2117297119.
171.
SinghPKShikhaDSawS (2023) Evaluation of potential toxic heavy metal contamination in soil, fly ash, vegetables and grain crops along with associated ecological and health risk assessment of nearby inhabitants of a thermal power station in Jharkhand (India). Environmental Science and Pollution Research30: 7752–7769.
172.
SiriruangCToochindaPJulnipitawongP, et al (2016) CO2 capture using fly ash from coal fired power plant and applications of CO2-captured fly ash as a mineral admixture for concrete. Journal of Environmental Management170: 70–78.
173.
SongG-JKimK-HSeoY-C, et al (2004) Characteristics of ashes from different locations at the MSW incinerator equipped with various air pollution control devices. Waste Management24: 99–106.
174.
SongG-JKimSHSeoY-C, et al (2008) Dechlorination and destruction of PCDDs/PCDFs in fly ashes from municipal solid waste incinerators by low temperature thermal treatment. Chemosphere71: 248–257.
175.
SongSZhouXGuoC, et al (2019) Emission characteristics of polychlorinated, polybrominated and mixed polybrominated/chlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs, PBDD/Fs, and PBCDD/Fs) from waste incineration and metallurgical processes in China. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety184: 109608.
176.
SoonminHQanungoKNazirR (2020) Removal of heavy metals from waste water using alumina and fly ash. Renewable Energy & Wastewater Treatment1: 65.
177.
StrnadelBMaMHeX, et al (2021) A comparative study on concrete slurry waste: performance optimization from the wet-milling process. Materials and Structures54: 184.
178.
SuHTanFLinJ (2020) An integrated approach combines hydrothermal chemical and biological treatment to enhance recycle of rare metals from coal fly ash. Chemical Engineering Journal395: 124640.
179.
SuMShihKChenD (2021) Advances in cadmium detoxification/stabilization by sintering with ceramic matrices. Environmental and Natural Resources Engineering19: 299–323.
180.
SunYDingHHossainRM, et al (2024) Aerated concrete made of MSW incineration ash: Effect of blending materials and CO2 curing condition. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering12: 114715.
181.
SzekelyGLivingstonAG (2019) Sustainable Nanoscale Engineering: From Materials Design to Chemical Processing. Amsterdam, Netherlands, and Cambridge, MA: Elsevier.
182.
TabyangWKuasakulTSookmaneeP, et al (2024) Use of a rubber wood fly ash-based geopolymer for stabilizing marginal lateritic soil as green subbase materials. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy26: 2059–2073.
183.
TangJSuMWuQ, et al (2019) Highly efficient recovery and clean-up of four heavy metals from MSWI fly ash by integrating leaching, selective extraction and adsorption. Journal of Cleaner Production234: 139–149.
184.
TangZHuangQYangY (2013) PCDD/Fs in fly ash from waste incineration in China: A need for effective risk management. Environmental Science & Technology47: 5520–5521.
185.
TengFWangZRenK, et al (2024) Analysis of composition characteristics and treatment techniques of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash in China. Journal of Environmental Management357: 120783.
186.
ThomasBSDimitriadisPKunduC, et al (2024) Extraction and separation of rare earth elements from coal and coal fly ash: A review on fundamental understanding and on-going engineering advancements. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering13: 112769.
187.
TianQGuoBNakamaS, et al (2018) Distributions and leaching behaviors of toxic elements in fly ash. ACS Omega3: 13055–13064.
188.
TianYThemelisNJZhaoD, et al (2022) Stabilization of waste-to-energy (WTE) fly ash for disposal in landfills or use as cement substitute. Waste Management150: 227–243.
189.
TongLHuQ (2022) Physicochemical properties of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Low Carbon Stabilization and Solidification of Hazardous Wastes2022: 129–139.
190.
TorelliD (2020) Use of Waste Material in AAM Concrete: Application in Circular Economy. Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich.
191.
VehlowJSeifertH (2012) Management of residues from waste-to-energy processes. In: Proceedings of the IEA Bioenergy Task 36 End of Triennium Conference, November2012, Paris, France. International Energy Agency Bioenergy.
192.
VergaraSETchobanoglousG (2012) Municipal solid waste and the environment: A global perspective. Annual Review of Environment and Resources37: 277–309.
193.
VogelsangCUmarM (2023) Municipal solid waste fly ash-derived zeolites as adsorbents for the recovery of nutrients and heavy metals – A Review. Water15: 3817.
194.
WangCJiangHMiaoE, et al (2024) Accelerated CO2 mineralization technology using fly ash as raw material: Recent research advances. Chemical Engineering Journal488: 150676.
195.
WangF-HZhangFChenY-J, et al (2015) A comparative study on the heavy metal solidification/stabilization performance of four chemical solidifying agents in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Journal of Hazardous Materials300: 451–458.
196.
WangNSunXZhaoQ, et al (2020) Leachability and adverse effects of coal fly ash: A review. Journal of Hazardous Materials396: 122725.
197.
WangPHuYChengH (2019) Municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration fly ash as an important source of heavy metal pollution in China. Environmental Pollution252: 461–475.
198.
WangQYanJ-HChiY, et al (2010) Application of thermal plasma to vitrify fly ash from municipal solid waste incinerators. Chemosphere78: 626–630.
199.
WangXLiCZhangB, et al (2016) Migration and risk assessment of heavy metals in sewage sludge during hydrothermal treatment combined with pyrolysis. Bioresource Technology221: 560–567.
200.
WangXZhuKZhangL, et al (2022) Mechanical property and heavy metal leaching behavior enhancement of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash during the pressure-assisted sintering treatment. Journal of Environmental Management301: 113856.
201.
WangYZhangXLiaoW, et al (2018) Investigating impact of waste reuse on the sustainability of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration industry using energy approach: A case study from Sichuan province, China. Waste Management77: 252–267.
202.
WeeJ-H (2013) A review on carbon dioxide capture and storage technology using coal fly ash. Applied Energy106: 143–151.
203.
WeiGLiuHZhangR, et al (2016) Mass concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and heavy metals in different size fractions of hospital solid waste incinerator fly ash particles. Aerosol and Air Quality Research16: 1569–1578.
204.
WeiJLiHLiuJ (2021) Fate of dioxins in a municipal solid waste incinerator with state-of-the-art air pollution control devices in China. Environmental Pollution289: 117798.
205.
WeiYDuXLiuS, et al (2024) Promotion of chloride removal from MSWI fly ash by an accelerated wet-carbonation process to enhance ash recycling in cement manufacture. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering12: 112591.
206.
WeibelGEggenbergerUSchlumbergerS, et al (2017) Chemical associations and mobilization of heavy metals in fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration. Waste Management62: 147–159.
207.
WongsaABoonsermKWaisurasinghaC, et al (2017) Use of municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) bottom ash in high calcium fly ash geopolymer matrix. Journal of Cleaner Production148: 49–59.
208.
WuC-HHuangC-HKanY-C, et al (2019) Effects of fineness and dosage of fly ash on the fracture properties and strength of concrete. Applied Sciences9: 2266.
209.
WuSZhouJPanY, et al (2016) Dioxin distribution characteristics and health risk assessment in different size particles of fly ash from MSWIs in China. Waste Management50: 113–120.
210.
XieKHuHCaoJ, et al (2020) A novel method for salts removal from municipal solid waste incineration fly ash through the molten salt thermal treatment. Chemosphere241: 125107.
211.
XiongYTakaokaMSanoA, et al (2019) Distribution and characteristics of heavy metals in a first-generation monofill site for incinerator residue. Journal of Hazardous Materials373: 763–772.
212.
XuGShiX (2018) Characteristics and applications of fly ash as a sustainable construction material: A state-of-the-art review. Resources, conservation and recycling136: 95–109.
213.
XuYChenY (2015) Leaching heavy metals in municipal solid waste incinerator fly ash with chelator/biosurfactant mixed solution. Waste Management & Research33: 652–661.
214.
XuZLiangZShaoH, et al (2023) Heavy metal stabilization in MSWI fly ash using an additive-assisted microwave hydrothermal method. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry117: 352–360.
215.
XueYLiuX (2021) Detoxification, solidification and recycling of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: A review. Chemical Engineering Journal420: 130349.
216.
YanMJiangJZhengR, et al (2022) Experimental study on the washing characteristics of fly ash from municipal solid waste incineration. Waste Management & Research40: 1212–1219.
217.
YangJHuangJSuY, et al (2019) Eco-friendly treatment of low-calcium coal fly ash for high pozzolanic reactivity: A step towards waste utilization in sustainable building material. Journal of Cleaner Production238: 117962.
218.
YangJXiaoBBoccacciniAR (2009) Preparation of low melting temperature glass–ceramics from municipal waste incineration fly ash. Fuel88: 1275–1280.
219.
YangNGeZLiA, et al (2022) Analysis of the heavy metals (As, Pb, Cu, Zn) by leaching and sequential extraction procedure from a municipal solid waste incinerator fly ash co-processing cement kiln plant. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment194: 353.
220.
YaoGXuRLiangZ, et al (2024) Evolution of physicochemical and leaching characteristics of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash in China under ultra-low emission standard. Journal of Environmental Management364: 121432.
221.
YoucaiZ (2016) Pollution Control and Resource Recovery: Municipal Solid Wastes Incineration: Bottom Ash and Fly Ash. Amsterdam, Netherlands, and Cambridge, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
222.
YoucaiZZiyangL (2016) Pollution Control and Resource Recovery: Municipal Solid Wastes at Landfill: Butterworth-Heinemann. Amsterdam, Netherlands, and Cambridge, MA: Butterworth-Heinemann.
223.
YuJLuCLeungCK, et al (2017) Mechanical properties of green structural concrete with ultrahigh-volume fly ash. Construction and Building Materials147: 510–518.
224.
YuRMuQ (2023) Implementation progress of Nature-based Solutions in China: A global comparative review. Nature-Based Solutions4: 100075.
225.
YuanQZhangYWangT, et al (2021) Mechanochemical stabilization of heavy metals in fly ash from coal-fired power plants via dry milling and wet milling. Waste Management135: 428–436.
226.
YuanRFanXGanM, et al (2023) Facile treatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash by one-step microwave hydrothermal method: Hazards detoxification and tobermorite synthesis. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering11: 109768.
227.
ZhaiJ (2022) Resource Recovery from, and Beneficial Reuse of Biomass Incinerator Ashes. United Kingdom: University of Leeds.
228.
ZhangF-SYamasakiSKimuraK (2002) Waste ashes for use in agricultural production: II. Contents of minor and trace metals. Science of The Total Environment286: 111–118.
229.
ZhangJZhangSLiuB (2020a) Degradation technologies and mechanisms of dioxins in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production250: 119507.
230.
ZhangWOswalHRenewJE, et al (2020b) Solidification/stabilization of flue gas desulfurization brine and coal fly ash for heavy metals and chloride immobilization: Effects of S/S conditions and zero-valent-iron pretreatment. Journal of Hazardous Materials384: 121463.
231.
ZhangYMaZFangZ, et al (2020c) Review of harmless treatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Waste Disposal & Sustainable Energy2: 1–25.
232.
ZhangYWangLChenL, et al (2021) Treatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash: State-of-the-art technologies and future perspectives. Journal of Hazardous Materials411: 125132.
233.
ZhangZLiAWangX, et al (2016) Stabilization/solidification of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash via co-sintering with waste-derived vitrified amorphous slag. Waste Management56: 238–245.
234.
ZhangZKLiAMLiangXY (2014) Effects of basicity (CaO/SiO2) on the behavior of heavy metals from sludge incineration ash by vitrification treatment. Advanced Materials Research878: 284–291.
235.
ZhaoCLinSZhaoY, et al (2022) Comprehensive understanding the transition behaviors and mechanisms of chlorine and metal ions in municipal solid waste incineration fly ash during thermal treatment. Science of The Total Environment807: 150731.
236.
ZhaoJTongLLiB, et al (2021) Eco-friendly geopolymer materials: A review of performance improvement, potential application and sustainability assessment. Journal of Cleaner Production307: 127085.
237.
ZhouJWuSPanY, et al (2015) Enrichment of heavy metals in fine particles of municipal solid waste incinerator (MSWI) fly ash and associated health risk. Waste Management43: 239–246.
238.
ZhouMGeXWangH, et al (2017) Effect of the CaO content and decomposition of calcium-containing minerals on properties and microstructure of ceramic foams from fly ash. Ceramics International43: 9451–9457.
239.
ZhuFTakaokaMShiotaK, et al (2008) Chloride chemical form in various types of fly ash. Environmental Science & Technology42: 3932–3937.
240.
ZhuZHuangYYuM, et al (2024) Mineral phase evolution and heavy metals migration during the hydrothermal treatment of municipal solid waste incineration fly ash. Fuel357: 129790.
241.
ZieroldKMOdohC (2020) A review on fly ash from coal-fired power plants: Chemical composition, regulations, and health evidence. Reviews on Environmental Health35: 401–418.
242.
ZuchaWWeibelGWolffersM, et al (2020) Inventory of MSWI fly ash in Switzerland: Heavy metal recovery potential and their properties for acid leaching. Processes8: 1668.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
