Applying cultural perspective in Indonesia municipal solid waste management process towards a grounded climate concept and action: A mini-review of opportunities and challenges

Abstract

This mini-review emphasises the role of municipal solid waste (MSW) as the biggest contributor to climate change, as well as the need for more grounded climate action. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) 2023 Synthesis Report by the co-facilitators on the technical dialogue Key Finding 3 of applying the ‘whole-of-society’ approach in this article is interpreted as a cultural approach in MSW management planning and implementation process. Using anthropological critiques of development, the cultural approach is frequently considered an obstacle or a justification for a project’s failure rather than an important aspect of the people being developed. Therefore, the goal of this mini-review is to showcase the findings and explore the practical application of UNFCCC Key Finding 3, emphasising its importance in every phase of the solid waste management process for climate action. This mini-review argues that applying a cultural perspective presents both opportunities and challenges. More importantly, without careful acknowledgement and consideration, opportunities can become challenges, if not vice versa. The discussion section explores the ways in which religious and economic conditions might offer a contextual understanding and effective techniques for managing MSW at the local level. To apply Key Finding 3 in practice, academia needs to move away from generality and embrace multiple ‘modernities’, while practitioners also need to include cultural perspectives to complement scientific knowledge.

Keywords

Climate action cultural perspective municipal solid waste opportunities and challenges local knowledge local wisdom

Introduction

Perhaps the most widely debated and discussed environmental issue of our time is climate change. Despite 28 years of global leaders’ meetings and discussions at the Conference of the Parties (COP), no solution has emerged, and temperatures continue to rise above preindustrial levels. Through its global stocktake in 2023, the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) estimated that global warming will result from all countries’ actions by 2.4–2.6°C (UNFCCC, 2023: 13). During the COP28 conference, a scientist from Brazil stated that greenhouse gas emissions are increasing worldwide and that fewer nations are committed to a rapid reduction in emissions, especially those from fossil fuels and agriculture (Afifa, 2023). Besides, the role of development in urban areas, which has been overlooked up until now, is starting to get attention, especially in academic setting. There are two opposite arguments for this, according to Onyanta (2016). Urban areas, although recognised as catalysts for development, are also considered primary contributors to climate change due to their involvement in the disposal of hazardous materials like carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases. Municipal solid waste (MSW) is known for its significant role in contributing to climate change due to waste treatments and disposals that release hazardous materials into the atmosphere. Globally, it is still a problem, particularly in the South, where many municipalities lack resources for collecting and disposing of waste. As a result, addressing climate change issues entails addressing the MSW sector’s management.

Interestingly, discussions about climate change, greenhouse gases and MSW management circulate most of the time among scientists and experts. But how about the people? What about those impacted by climate change but who are unable to even grasp the concept of climate change and its impact on their livelihood and everyday lives? We often marginalise and exclude these people from discussions. The latest UNFCCC Synthesis Report (2023: 4) addresses this issue through its Key Finding 3, which argues that ‘. . . systems transformations open up many opportunities, but rapid change can be disruptive. A focus on inclusion and equity can increase ambition in climate action and support’. The report further explains:

Carefully designed climate action can generate significant benefits and can help to minimize disruptions by taking a whole-of-society approach informed by local context. Equity should enable greater ambition and increase the likelihood of meeting the goals of the Paris Agreement. Those most affected by climate impacts should be involved in crafting solutions. (UNFCCC, 2023: 4)

From the statement above, it can be extracted that the UNFCCC suggests a more grounded approach to tackling climate change by taking a ‘whole-of-society’ perspective, not only scientists, experts and global leaders, in formulating solutions. This mini-review, therefore, aims to address this issue by bringing results and discussion from Indonesia’s local context in its effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through sound MSW management planning and implementation. Indonesia has been chosen for the case study as it has demonstrated remarkable economic growth and serves as the largest economy in Southeast Asia (World Bank Group and Asian Development Bank, 2021). The anticipated growth would basically result in increased goods production and consumption, which would contribute to waste generation at the municipal level. Based on this framework, this mini-review also suggest that tackling the MSW issue in Indonesia can have a positive effect on its contribution to climate action.

This mini-review is conducted through a thorough literature review of related documents, consisting of official reports, journal articles and intergovernmental synthesis reports on related case studies. More details about methods will be specified in a later section. A ‘whole-of-society’ approach in this mini-review will be interpreted as a cultural perspective, which will be used in analysing Indonesian MSW management practice. This approach will be discussed further in the methods of review and conceptual framework section. In order to better understand the context, Indonesian country background will also be provided in the results section. The discussion section explores the ways in which religious and economic conditions might offer a contextual understanding and effective techniques for managing MSW. The conclusion will then summarise a way in which both sides can be better navigated. This mini-review will also suggest concrete recommendations for academia and policymakers in the bigger context of grounding the climate change concept.

Methods of review and conceptual framework

As previously mentioned, this part will give a detailed explanation regarding the literature review methods used in this article as well as conceptualising the framework for analysis.

Literature search, selection and collection, and review and analysis

This mini-review article uses the method of literature review in the data collection process to discuss a particular matter (Snyder, 2019). Furthermore, the integrative review approach is selected with the aim of evaluating, analysing and compiling the literature on an area of inquiry in a way that makes room for the emergence of fresh theoretical frameworks and viewpoints (Torraco, 2005). Within this method and approach, this article follows three main steps of literature review: literature search, selection and collection and critical analyses of the literature. The subsection below will describe the first and second steps, whereas the results and discussion section will cover the third.

This mini-review paper’s main question serves as a guideline for searching the literature. This article proposes to answer this question: What are the opportunities and challenges of applying a cultural perspective to developing MSW management in Indonesia? Based on this question, this article reviewed written documents in the form of international and national-scale journal articles, official documents such as government or non-government organisation reports, as well as national and regional regulations of MSW management in Indonesia. The literature search restricts the publication year to 2000, excluding the conceptual framework and country background. This is due to the consideration of the relatively new regional regulation in Indonesia which was fully implemented in 2000. In searching the literature, a few keywords are used, such as ‘cultural perspective in solid waste management, local knowledge in MSW management, local wisdoms in Indonesia MSW management, Indonesian solid waste management, Bali, Sumatra, Java’. These keywords were selected due to their specific focus on cultural perspectives in Indonesian MSW management while also allowing general MSW issues around Indonesia and specific areas with their distinct cultures. To search the literature, online and offline Sussex Library searches and Google Scholar have been used for the main access points.

After running several keywords mentioned above, there were at least 20,000 articles shown. However, the literature was selected based on its relevancy to the research question as well as its area of research within Indonesia. The screening process started with articles and documents’ titles, followed by their abstracts and results. Relevant literature was then stored in Zotero, an open-source research management software, to be organised based on its geographical areas within the Indonesian archipelago. There were at least 150 items consisting of journal articles and official documents and reports used in this mini-review article, of which 56 were cited.

After the literature selection and collection, 24 out of 56 documents cited were critically analysed using the conceptual framework explained in the later section. Results and findings from the journal article were reviewed and contributed to the formulation of arguments between the opportunities and challenges of applying cultural perspectives in MSW management in Indonesia.

Cultural perspective in development

To a certain extent, climate change and MSW management are part of development in environmental sector. Understanding development in theory and practice thus serves as an entry point to holistic discussions on cultural approaches to climate action. Sumner and Tribe (2008) define development in three ways: development as a social transformational change, development as a project and development as a discourse of modern western culture. The second definition of development closely aligns with the first two, suggesting that while project-based development can facilitate transformational changes, it also reflects the imposition of western culture’s modernity definition on other cultures under the guise of development. Thus, ‘modernities’ (Pieterse, 1995: 186), the plural form of modernity, may better be used in addition to the process of ‘reworking modernity’ context (Pred and Watts, 1992). Development, as planned and unplanned social and economic transformation (Gardner and Lewis, 2015), entails cross-cultural interactions (Pieterse, 1995).

Further elaborating, Gardner and Lewis (2015) clarify that culture is shaped by historically particular political and economic contexts, which in turn shape culture. As a result, culture varies according to time and location (Pieterse, 1995). Another definition of it is a cohesive, functional system of ideas, symbols and values (Kuper, 2000). Local wisdom, also referred to as local knowledge, undergoes continuous practice and derives from experiences and stories (Kumar et al., 2017). The discussion between development and culture brought anthropologists into the spotlight, as more and more of them are working in development activities as ‘culture experts’ in the applied field (Escobar, 1991: 658). In actor-oriented development anthropology, arguments centre on the different types of knowledge that different development actors disseminate. With the idea that development actors prefer uniform and formalised forms of technical scientific knowledge over the localised, contextualised and empirical forms of popular knowledge that rural actors use (Olivier de Sardan, 2005).

In conclusion, using a cultural perspective in development entails using an anthropological question to address broad issues while also deriving much of its critical knowledge from local contexts (Eriksen, 2015). This idea will negate the top-down approach, which is one of the anthropological critiques of development, in favour of a more bottom-up process. Instead of pursuing planned changes by implementing one modernity, one should identify and take into account multiple modernities available in a particular setting. From these definitions of cultural perspective and development, local wisdom or knowledge will be used to discuss the opportunities and challenges in their application to the MSW management issue in Indonesia towards climate action. In the next section, Indonesia’s country background will be described in relation to its diversity, decentralisation and MSW management context.

Results

Indonesian context: Diversity, decentralisation and MSW management

Indonesia is geographically divided over an island arc that spans roughly 5000 km (Picard, 1997) and is marked by a great degree of linguistic, ethnic and regional diversity (Fitrani et al., 2005). It is home to 300 different ethnic groups, each with a unique cultural identity, which also comprises more than 250 different languages (Geertz, 1967). According to the Dutch anthropologist de Jong (1935), Indonesia is a diverse region with a high degree of historical homogeneity, which makes it an ideal ‘ethnological field of study’ for intercultural research. The nation’s founders set out to create a national culture that incorporated the best cultural accomplishments from every region of Indonesia to manage such a diverse society (Picard, 1997). Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, meaning unity in diversity, is a Sanskrit term used as the nation’s slogan, which represents its attempts to bring together a pluralistic society with a range of cultural backgrounds, as well as its aspirations to build the nation (Nurhayati et al., 2021).

In addition, as cited in amended Republic of Indonesia Law Number 22/1999 regarding regional regulations, region-based potential and diversity are emphasised through decentralisation in regional development. The law sets the foundation for Indonesia’s division into regional jurisdictions, or provinces and municipal governments (Kabupaten and Kota) (Fitrani et al., 2005). Indonesia uses both Kabupaten and Kota to describe municipal government. Kabupaten refers to a less dense population within an agrarian area, whereas Kota refers to a denser population within urban areas of a municipality. However, both terms are used legally as ‘Kabupaten/Kota’ to describe municipal government. Two of its goals are to promote regional development from below by granting subnational governments greater autonomy in choosing programmes that are more committed in relation to community interests and municipal and regional development goals (Talitha et al., 2020), as well as encourage public involvement in the process of planning and decision-making by bringing the government closer to the people (Rondinelli, 1981).

In the context of MSW management, Law Number 18/2008 regarding waste management sets the legal framework for solid waste management practice in Indonesia, including, but not limited to, (1) minimising waste generation from sources and (2) highlighting the imperative role of community involvement in waste reduction and treatment. However, Indonesia is still facing urgent challenges, one of which is the use of landfilling as its main and current method of disposal which arguably contradicts the waste management principle (Azis et al., 2021). In 2012, the Ministry of Environment issued a new law, Waste Law Number 81/2012, as a response to the ongoing landfilling problem. This law addresses three primary and significant issues (Wasserbauer and Herák, 2016). First, as of 2013, all Kabupaten/Kota are obligated to modify their open landfill dumping practices to more environmentally friendly ones. Second, the government and industry players (producers, importers, distributors, retailers, etc.) need to understand how to apply extended producer responsibility (EPR) to waste management. Lastly, administrators of certain areas are responsible for managing, collecting and sorting the waste in each of the following areas: public facilities, industrial areas, commercial areas, residential areas and special facilities. The implementation, however, is far from expected as the law only regulates how MSW management should be managed without providing any solution for how it can be achieved in practice. Indonesia is thus set to rank as the second-biggest plastic polluter globally in 2020 (Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Republic of Indonesia, 2020). Additionally, the nation is among the top emitters of greenhouse gas worldwide, to which inappropriate waste disposal contributes significantly (Dune, 2019).

Results on opportunities and challenges

Relevant local wisdom for MSW intervention

One way to apply cultural perspective in development intervention is by identifying and integrating local wisdom appropriate to the objective of MSW management. Reviewed articles show that Balinese people have strong cultural values called Tri Hita Karana, which means the three causes of happiness, in which the relation between human and god (parahyangan), human and another human being (pawongan) and human with environment (palemahan) is regulated (Agnes et al., 2020). This value is reflected in Balinese daily life, regulated through customary law, and implemented by the customary village, or desa adat (Made Suwitra et al., 2020). The concept of palemahan for Balinese in regards to solid waste management was implemented through the existence and utilisation of teba, or backyard (Waridin and Astawa, 2021). Initially, Balinese people used teba for gardening, as a breeding ground and for manure disposal. As a gardening function, Balinese people will separate organic solid waste and process it into ground fertiliser. The harmonious relationship between humans and nature in palemahan depicts human consumption and production processes in which human take materials from nature and give them back to nature.

Another example comes from Tapak Kuda Village in North Sumatra, where the locals have meresik, a local wisdom to define their identity as a coastal community and apply ideas, values and standards regarding environmental cleanliness and health (Hamzah et al., 2020). For them, waste management consciousness is an expression of a hygienic viewpoint via culture and religion. From previous two examples, the MSW management issue can be considered under the relationship between humans and the environment; thus, the idea of palemahan can further be the point of departure of the MSW management planning process in Bali’s municipalities, as well as the value of meresik, which can also be integrated into the solid waste planning at the municipal level.

In the case of heterogenous municipalities due to rapid urbanisation, such as in Kota, Indonesia has national value of gotong royong, which can be translated as mutual cooperation. Research in Pringamba Village of Kabupaten Banjarnegara suggests that emphasising the value of gotong royong proved to increase the community’s comprehension of solid waste management through the waste bank scheme (Purnomo et al., 2022). The same research reveals that rural community empowerment can further be achieved to address solid waste problems at the village level. Additionally, another study done in West Java shows that gotong royong not only improves environmental condition but also teaches the community about cooperation, solidarity and taking an active role in environmental preservation (Rahmawati et al., 2023).

Irrelevant local wisdom for MSW intervention

Pertaining to this, however, irrelevant local wisdoms among solid waste treatment and disposal exist within society, which can hamper the MSW management effort. For example, Balinese Hinduism is characterised by many rituals (Geertz, 1973). In each rituals, sacred offerings made from palm leaf, called canang, are prepared, which, as Vashti (2022) argues, have been practised for a very long time. Even though the majority of Balinese Hindus make offerings on a daily basis, the same research also indicates that there are surprisingly few guidelines regarding what to do with the leftovers from the offerings. Beyond just being a symbol of prayer, canang is also an age-old custom that uses a range of natural materials, including agricultural products like leaves, flowers and fruits (Primayanti and Puspita, 2022), which should only produce organic waste. However, canang is often made of palm leaf although crafted by aluminium staples and contain packaged snacks such as candy or bread which still have plastic wrappers on them. Vashti (2022) discovers that the once all-organic sacred ritual equipment has now been amalgamated with inorganic components.

The same illustration comes from the Java area, with their ritual of larung, frequently connected to the custom of discarding bad luck (Suwarno and Nurhayati, 2021). Larung, a traditional cultural activity, involves throwing food into rivers or the sea, especially cone rice, along with its corresponding flowers, fruits and other food items. It is also associated with disaster prevention as presented by the case of community in Ngebel Lake in East Java which believes that it needs to be done (Saddhono et al., 2019). These beliefs support the idea that throwing something into a body of water is permissible. Hence, it governs how people think and act in society. Another ritual in Java in relation to waste production is bediang, a custom whereby waste, animal dung, coconut husks, dry turf or wood are burned in order to keep mosquitoes and other tiny animals away from cattle (Suwarno and Nurhayati, 2021).

In addition, MacRae and Rodic (2015) argue that local wisdoms, such as canang, larung and bediang, struggled to adjust to the new materials that started to appear in the 1960s and became more common starting in the 1980s, particularly plastic packaging. The previous examples imply that most local norms changed naturally within local communities (Green, 2016), which to some extent may be influenced by development within the community itself. Therefore, irrelevant local wisdom becomes the challenge in applying cultural perspective to the MSW management issue in Indonesia. However, rather than deny, I argue that those modernities are important to be taken into account for a culturally sensitive MSW management planning and implementation process.

The scope and definition of ‘local’ in local wisdom

Assigning local wisdom as the point of departure has another challenge: how local is the local wisdom? What does it mean to be local? And who defines the locality of knowledge? In the case of rapid urbanisation and development, people who reside on Java Island of Bali Island may not be Javanese or Balinese. For example, studies conducted in Bali’s Gianyar municipality reveal that a number of MSW projects failed because of local cultural politics, and neither the central neighbourhoods nor the surrounding villages wanted waste to be processed or stored nearby (MacRae and Rodic, 2015). The research has shown how numerous small decisions made by people and organisations, all of which are influenced by local wisdoms unique to a given area, can have a cumulative effect that leads to unintended consequences, perverse outcomes, inefficiencies and systems that fall short of their potential.

If all Balinese people and Bali’s municipal government consider the local wisdoms of palemahan of Tri Hita Karana as their main point of departure, the conflict should not have happened in the first place. In this case, local cultural politics override local wisdom. This challenge in the case of Bali has also been attributed to the intersection between administrative village and customary village, in which the former functions in the field of service or administration including MSW management, whereas the latter is in the field of custom and religion (Wiratmaja et al., 2023). Although research suggests that Balinese have the tendency to obey customary law more than the state law (Agnes et al., 2020), incorporating both laws are not an easy task and may lead to tension. From the foregoing examples, it is obvious that applying cultural perspective to MSW management planning and implementation is challenging, particularly in determining the locality of knowledge. If the solution to this locality problem is through Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, will it still accommodate the modernities?

Integrating local wisdoms for a collaboration and bottom-up process

The identification and integration of local wisdom in MSW management issues in Indonesia can improve collaboration with the local community through a bottom-up process. On the one hand, as discussed in the previous section, Indonesian MSW management relies on community initiative to improve the quality of its services. On the other hand, applying a cultural perspective by involving the local community is a win-win solution to improve collaboration while also providing better MSW services.

For example, a study in Temesi Village of Kabupaten Gianyar found that intermediary roles provided by local stakeholders’ serve as a bridge between MSW service providers and users as well as minimising potential social conflict in the area (Zurbrügg et al., 2012). In the Bali MSW management case, the local stakeholders are associated with the customary village. In a recent study of MSW management in Kota Denpasar, Made Suwitra et al. (2020) contend that state law and customary law jointly produce social order as a reflection of a well-ordered living law culture. They proceeded on to argue that coexistence (of state law and customary law) can strengthen society’s commitment as citizens and provide more strength to oversee and enforce MSW policy and regulations, as community participation is essential for MSW management to succeed. In addition, it makes logical sense to begin the planning process in local communities through local wisdom and values identification and integration, for instance, where waste first appears (MacRae and Rodic, 2015). MacRae and Rodic further suggest that using ethnographic research techniques from the outset in a community-based planning process would be one way to do this.

In certain cultures in Java, research from Kota Surabaya also found that local community participation resulted in more environmentally conscious behaviour, an increased willingness to pay for MSW management for users and more responsible behaviour overall (Premakumara et al., 2011). Because MSW management is technically dependent on local factors, such as geographic conditions that affect waste composition and volume, the availability of waste management options and the marketability of recycled materials, collaboration also benefits other aspects (Sunarto and Sulistyaningsih, 2018). From an anthropological perspective, research also suggests that bottom-up initiatives such as community clean-ups, waste banks and fashion recycling carnivals have proven to be much more effective and efficient in tackling waste problems due to their ability to address multiple aspects of human life, including economic, social and emotional aspects (Schlehe and Yulianto, 2020). This is because, for most people, the notion of nature is far from the ground, let alone understood as something that needs to be conserved and preserved. Rather, what is easier to understand is their current social environment involving the foregoing multiple aspects.

From local wisdom to sustainability in MSW intervention

Applying cultural perspective in Indonesia MSW context from the ground level of planning towards the implementation process can lead to sustainability. The framework of Integrated Sustainable Waste Management (ISWM), for instance, has gained more attention from MSW practitioners around Indonesia for at least a decade. This framework has been implemented in several studies of MSW management in Kota Bogor (Maryanti, 2017), Kota Surabaya (Premakumara et al., 2011), Kota Malang (Sunarto and Sulistyaningsih, 2018), Kabupaten Gianyar (Zurbrügg et al., 2012), and MSW master planning process in Kabupaten Banyuwangi (Clean Ocean through Clean Communities, 2021) and an ongoing process in Kabupaten Tabanan (Korneliussen, 2023).

The proponent of ISWM argues that the ‘integrated’ concept in ISWM depicts the collaboration between multi-level decision makers (Clarke et al., 1999) and other stakeholders from local authorities, NGOs, service users, private formal and informal issues, as well as donor agencies (Anschütz et al., 2001). Although the concept of ‘sustainability’ is influenced not only by technical, environmental, financial, institutional, policy or regulation but, more importantly, by socio-cultural aspects (Anschütz et al., 2004). The ISWM generally advises that MSW management encompasses multiple modernities, with no definitive right or wrong answers. Instead, when developing solutions, we must consider local needs and conditions (Wilson et al., 2013).

In Indonesia, the technocratic approach to solving MSW problems has failed to touch on the sustainability aspect of MSW management due to a lack of participation as shown in the case of Kota Malang (Wahyudi et al., 2019). Salsabila et al. (2021) agreed by arguing that what matters most is people’s perspective towards waste, which is extracted from the community’s knowledge. The technocratic approach implies that with proper operational activities – such as waste collection, transfer and landfilling – waste problem can be easily solved. Therefore, the level of participation is limited to paying fees for operational activities to work rather than engaging them actively. One example is by conducting discussions with the local community to identify their knowledge regarding waste during MSW management planning process, which will lead to localised solution. This example shows why the ‘integrated’ part of the ISWM is important, as it underpins the sustainability aspect of the whole waste management process.

Resource limitation for MSW intervention

Lastly, resource limitations such as data availability and budget constraints challenge the application of cultural perspectives in MSW management issues in Indonesia. The Indonesian MSW management context, as in other capital cities in developing nations, is based on a conventional collect-haul-dispose system. Several approaches to collection, transfer, haulage and disposal have been tried with limited success in an effort to boost productivity. This limited success, according to Pasang et al. (2007), is attributed to data availability for planning, monitoring and evaluation. In relation to data, although MacRae and Rodic suggest using ethnographic research for collecting waste data (2015), municipalities in Indonesia have limited financial capabilities to do so (Meidiana and Gamse, 2010).

The absence of a polluters’ pay concept, a mechanism for collecting revenue and the cost of environmental and health damage that is not factored into financial calculations are all pinned to this financial problem (Pasang et al., 2007). In addition, decentralisation proved to be deviant from its initial purpose to support region-based potential and diversity into a complex bureaucracy system (Supriyadi et al., 2000), which resulted in disintegration (Sunarto and Sulistyaningsih, 2018), overlapping responsibilities and weak implementation (Meidiana and Gamse, 2010). Often, cultural perspectives are ignored in the MSW management planning process due to these reasons.

Discussion

Religiousity as the root of local wisdom

People have mentioned Tri Hita Karana and meresik as examples of relevant local wisdom in relation to solid waste management at the community level. The teachings of Hinduism (Sukarma, 2016) and Islam (Hamzah and Nurhasanah, 2023) form the foundation of these two practices. However, gotong royong, an older wisdom, emerged before the religion even reached Indonesian communities (Pamungkas et al., 2020). It serves to bring people together to collaborate and promptly complete their tasks, disregarding factors such as ethnicity or religion. This finding demonstrates that the religious context directly or indirectly influences the local wisdom of solid waste management in various parts of Indonesia. According to a study conducted in Malaysia by Mohamad et al. (2012), religion has the ability to bring about significant and profound ecological changes on a large scale. Therefore, it is impossible to separate the identification of local wisdom from the religious context of a particular community when applying a cultural perspective in MSW management.

As previously mentioned, there is a close intertwinement between local wisdom and religious belief. Therefore, an effective engagement strategy for managing MSW should involve partnering with religious leaders or institutions. In its most ideal manifestation, religious belief is regarded as an effective driver for accomplishing purposeful changes by instilling ecologically beneficial habits of practice and mindsets in future generations who hold similar beliefs (Foltz et al., 2003). Religious leaders exert significant influence on community engagement, both locally and nationally. In the local context, local religious leaders and institutions possess the closest understanding of the conditions and characteristics of the community (Sukerti et al., 2017). And in a national context, Indonesia is a Muslim-majority country, thus applying a cultural approach through Islamic religious leaders can be done massively. In the case of Bali, with its Hindu religion, religious leaders can support responsible religious ceremony practices by emphasising the use of organic materials in canang. This strategy will enhance both community acceptance of the MSW management effort and collaboration amongst institutions by implementing a cultural approach. Through cooperation with local religious leaders, the community can be reintegrated into its inherent essence and gradually reconnect with the fundamental principles of utilising organic resources.

Economic development, innovation and incentives

Findings related to irrelevant local knowledge show that it is not the ritual of canang or larung that is irrelevant; it is the materials used in the ritual that have evolved due to the evolving culture of the society. This discovery is consistent with a study carried out in Bali, which suggests that plastic packaging has supplanted the traditional use of natural materials like banana leaves to package traditional snacks (Sari et al., 2023). This is what happens with canang and larung as people add snacks as part of the offering. People are abandoning the conventional practice of packing due to its perceived impracticality and the increasing scarcity of resources required for its production (Natadjaja and Yuwono, 2016; Sari et al., 2023). This phenomenon is not limited to Bali alone but also extends to several regions in Java (Natadjaja and Yuwono, 2016). Producers in these places are now contemplating and conducting experiments to incorporate modern materials, particularly plastic, due to the challenges they have in sourcing natural materials locally. The advancement of the economy, characterised by the increase in production, distribution and consumption, necessitated the use of packaging that is more long-lasting, functional and cost-effective. And plastic satisfies all these attributes.

Given the significant influence of economic development and innovation on cultural evolution within society, it is necessary to incorporate economic incentives into efforts to manage MSW. However, the implementation of this method requires government backing and legislation, as it contradicts the challenges posed by limited resources in the application of a cultural approach. The collaboration between the municipal and central government is crucial in obtaining financing to enhance MSW programmes within the community. There are multiple strategies to do this, including the implementation of an EPR programme at the national level, securing finance from the business sector within the community, and establishing social protection measures for both formal and informal sectors involved in community-based solid waste recycling. By implementing these strategies, the management of MSW at the community level can become more captivating and sustainable for the communities. Over time, these incentives can also foster the integration of different cultures by transforming local wisdom into a new form that encourages sustainable methods of producing, distributing and consuming goods.

Conclusion and recommendation

This mini-review began with the idea that, despite extensive discussion and attention in development discourse and practice, solutions to climate change remain elusive. The UNFCCC proposes a ‘whole-of-society’ approach for formulating solutions towards climate action. This approach resonates with the persistent criticism of development by anthropologists, who argue that the field lacks a cultural perspective. The effort to ground climate change in this mini-review was done by bringing the case study of MSW management, the biggest contributor to greenhouse gas emissions (Onyanta, 2016), into discussion. This is particularly relevant to Indonesia’s context as a diverse and multi-cultural nation.

By applying a cultural perspective to the MSW management sector in Indonesia, this mini-review found an equal weight of opportunities and challenges. The three main opportunities suggest (1) cultural perspective can assist in the planning process by identifying and integrating local wisdom for culturally sensitive MSW management; (2) identifying and integrating local wisdom, to a partial extent, can also improve collaboration between municipal government and the local community and (3) applying cultural perspective in the MSW management context of Indonesia can promote sustainability in development interventions. Although challenges exist including (1) irrelevant knowledge in regards to MSW management issues, as shown previously through examples from Bali, Java and Sumatra; (2) the term ‘local’ in local wisdom and the local community itself is ambiguous and difficult to define and (3) resource limitations in terms of data availability and financial constraints pose a great challenge, not to mention using ethnographic research in the MSW management planning process. According to the findings, the discussion highlights that religion plays a significant role in the development of local wisdom. Therefore, it cannot be separated and must be taken into account while creating strategies. One example is to engage in collaboration with religious leaders or institutions to advance the management of MSW. Economic development also plays an equally significant influence in the evolution of local wisdom. By implementing an economic incentives programme like EPR, offering social protection to not only formal but also informal waste workers, and supporting community-based initiatives, the management and sustainability of MSW may be ensured.

Finally, this mini-review concludes that addressing a broad concept of climate change can start with addressing the MSW management issue, and the ‘whole-of-society’ approach can be applied in the form of a cultural approach. As for recommendations, there are two important points that can be considered. In academic settings, it is important to reduce generality and be open to ‘modernities’ in the MSW management research, as each locality is unique. In practice, MSW management needs to include cultural perspectives in its planning and implementation process as the main point of departure rather than a technocratic point of view.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: The author received financial support for the publication of this article from the Indonesia Endowment Fund for Education – Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan (LPDP).

ORCID iD

Prisilia Resolute

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