Soil has been used as building material for thousands of years with a decrease in popularity after the industrial revolution. Nowadays, there is a growing interest in the implementation of unfired soil-based building solutions for their low environmental impact, performances and availability. Traditional soil construction techniques have recurrently included vegetal fibres to enhance soil performance and recent studies highlight a predominant use of agro- and non-agro-waste for unfired soil construction. The article reviews the state-of-the-art of the use of excavated soil and biowaste in the construction industry including a novel focus on urban-only waste and on building technologies using the integration of these two secondary construction material flows. Our literature review highlights a lack of references about the joint use of these secondary resources. Finally, future research orientations are suggested to promote their implementation in the building sector, which could improve urban waste management.
AchenzaMFenuL (2006) On earth stabilization with natural polymers for earth masonry construction. Materials and Structures39: 21–27.
2.
AdoglaFYalleyPPKArkohK (2016) Improving compressed laterite bricks using powdered eggshells. International Journal of Engineering Science5: 65–70.
3.
Al-FakihABasharSMShahir LiewM, et al. (2019) Incorporation of waste materials in the manufacture of masonry bricks: An update review. Journal of Building Engineering21: 37–54.
4.
AlginHMTurgutP (2008) Cotton and limestone powder wastes as brick material. Construction and Building Materials22: 1074–1080.
5.
Al RimKLedhemADouzaneO, et al. (1999) Influence of the proportion of wood on the thermal and mechanical performances of clay cement-wood composites. Cement and Concrete Composites21: 269–276.
6.
AlshibaniA (2018) Automation of measuring actual productivity of earthwork in urban area, a case study from Montreal. Buildings8: 178.
7.
ArulrajahAKuaTAPhetchuayC, et al. (2016) Spent coffee grounds–Fly ash geopolymer used as an embankment structural fill material. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering28: 04015197.
AttiasNDanaiOAbitbolT, et al. (2020) Mycelium bio-composites in industrial design and architecture: Comparative review and experimental analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production246: 119037.
10.
AyodeleALOketopeOMOlatundeOS (2019) Effect of sawdust ash and eggshell ash on selected engineering properties of lateralized bricks for low cost housing. Nigerian Journal of Technology38: 278–282.
11.
BouguerraALedhemAde BarquinF, et al. (1998) Effect of microstructure on the mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight concrete prepared from clay, cement, and wood aggregates. Cement and Concrete Research28: 1179–1190.
12.
BüglerMBorrmannAOgunmakinG, et al. (2017) Fusion of photogrammetry and video analysis for productivity assessment of earthwork processes. Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering32: 107–123.
13.
Cabello ErasJSagastume GutiérrezAHernández CapoteD, et al. (2013) Improving the environmental performance of an earthwork project using cleaner production strategies. Journal of Cleaner Production47: 368–376.
14.
CapassoILiguoriBFeroneC, et al. (2021) Strategies for the valorization of soil waste by geopolymer production: An overview. Journal of Cleaner Production288: 125646
15.
CecchiniC (2017) Bioplastics made from upcycled food waste. Prospects for their use in the field of design. The Design Journal20(Suppl. 1): S1596-S1610, DOI: 10.1080/14606925.2017.1352684
16.
ChelAKaushikG (2018) Renewable energy technologies for sustainable development of energy efficient building. Alexandria Engineering Journal57: 655–669.
17.
ChenXFujitaTOhnishiS, et al. (2012) The impact of scale, recycling boundary, and type of waste on symbiosis and recycling. Journal of Industrial Ecology16: 129–141.
18.
CristóbalJCaldeiraCCorradoS, et al. (2018) Techno-economic and profitability analysis of food waste biorefineries at European level. Bioresource Technology259: 244–252.
19.
DansoH (2018) Suitability of soil for earth construction as building material. Advances in Civil Engineering2: 199–211.
20.
DemirI (2006) An investigation on the production of construction brick with processed waste tea. Building and Environment41: 1274–1278.
21.
DemirI (2008) Effect of organic residues addition on the technological properties of clay bricks. Waste Management28: 622–627.
22.
Eliche-QuesadaDPérez-VillarejoLIglesias-GodinoFJ, et al. (2011) Incorporation of coffee grounds into clay brick production. Advances in Applied Ceramics: Structural, Functional & Bioceramics110: 225–232.
23.
ElsackerEVandelookSVan WylickA, et al. (2020) A comprehensive framework for the production of mycelium-based lignocellulosic composites. Science of The Total Environment725: 138431.
24.
Esposito CorcioneCFerrariFStrianiR, et al. (2019a) An innovative green process for the stabilization and valorization of the organic fraction of municipal solid waste. Applied Sciences9: 4516.
25.
Esposito CorcioneCFerrariFStrianiR, et al. (2019b) An innovative green process for the stabilization and valorization of organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW): Optim’tion of the curing process II part. Applied Sciences9: 3702.
26.
European Commission (2015) Circular economy action plan – An EU action plan for the circular economy. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. Available at: https://circulareconomy.europa.eu/platform/en/european-commission (accessed 25 July 2020).
Eurostat (2017) Generation of Waste by Waste Category, Hazardousness and NACE Rev 2 Activity. Eurostat.
34.
FadeleOAAtaO (2018) Water absorption properties of sawdust lignin stabilised compressed laterite bricks. Case Studies in Construction Materials9: e00187.
35.
FishmanTSchandlHTanikawaH (2016) Stochastic analysis and forecasts of the patterns of speed, acceleration, and levels of material stock accumulation in society. Environmental Science & Technology50: 3729–3737.
36.
Gálvez-MartosJStylesDSchoenbergerH, et al. (2018) Construction and demolition waste best management practice in Europe. Resources, Conservation & Recycling136: 166–178.
37.
GasnierH (2019) Construire en terres d’excavation, un enjeu pour la ville durable. PhD Thesis, Laboratoire CRAterre - Unité de recherche AE&CC – ENSAG. Available at: https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-02165900 (accessed 30 July 2020).
38.
GoelGKalamdhadAS (2017) Degraded municipal solid waste as partial substitute for manufacturing fired bricks. Construction and Building Materials155: 259–266.
39.
HaberlHGeisslerS (2000) Cascade utilisation of biomass: Strategies for a more efficient use of a scarce resource. Ecological Engineering16: S111–S121.
40.
HancANovakPDvorakM, et al. (2011) Composition and parameters of household bio-waste in four seasons. Waste Management31: 1450–1460.
41.
HeathAWalkerPFourieC, et al. (2099) Compressive strength of extruded unfired clay masonry units. Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Construction Materials162: 105–112.
42.
HebelDWisniewskaMHeiselF (2014) Building from Waste: Recovered Materials in Architecture and Construction. Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
43.
HomrichASGalvaoGAbadiaLG, et al. (2018) The circular economy umbrella: Trends and gaps on integrating pathways. Journal of Cleaner Production175: 525–543.
44.
HoornwegDBhada-TataP (2012) What a Waste—A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. Washington, DC: World Bank.
45.
HoornwegDBhada-TataPKennedyC (2013) Waste production must peak this century. Nature502: 615–617.
HuangSLYehCTChangLF (2010) The transition to an urbanizing world and the demand for natural resources. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability2: 136–143.
48.
IzquierdoISoto IzquierdoORamalhoM (2018) Physical and mechanical properties of concrete using residual powder from organic waste as partial cement replacement. Revista Ingeniería de Construcción33: 229–240.
49.
JannatNHussienAAbdullahB, et al. (2020) Application of agro and non-agro waste materials for unfired earth blocks construction: A review. Construction and Building Materials254:119346.
50.
KadirAASaraniNALemanAM (2015) Testing on building material using waste material in fired clay brick. Materials Science Forum803: 330–336.
51.
KampelmannSRauffletEScialpiG (2020) Earth, wood and coffee, empirical evidence on value creation in circular economy. In: SinghPVermaPSrivastavaKK, et al. (eds) Environmental Sustainability and Economy. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier. In press.
52.
KataguiriKBoscovaMEGTeixeiraCE, et al. (2019) Characterization flowchart for assessing the potential reuse of excavation soils in Sao Paulo city. Journal of Cleaner Production240: 118215.
53.
KinuthiaJ (2016) Unfired clay materials and construction. In: Nonconventional and Vernacular Construction Materials, 251–272.
54.
KrausmannFGingrichSEisenmengerN, et al. (2009) Growth in global materials use, GDP and population during the 20th century. Ecological Economics68: 2696–2705.
55.
KuaTAArulrajahAHorpibulsukS, et al. (2016) Strength assessment of spent coffee grounds-geopolymer cement utilizing slag and fly ash precursors. Construction and Building Materials115: 565–575.
56.
KuaTAArulrajahAMohammadiniaA, et al. (2017) Stiffness and deformation properties of spent coffee grounds based geopolymers. Construction and Building Materials138: 79–87.
57.
Laborel-PréneronAAubertJEMagniontC, et al. (2016) Plant aggregates and fibers in earth construction materials: A review. Construction and Building Materials111: 719–734.
58.
LedhemADheillyRMBenmalekML, et al. (2000) Properties of wood-based composites formulated with aggregate industry waste. Construction and Building Materials14: 341–350.
59.
LiGXuXChenE, et al. (2015) Properties of cement-based bricks with oyster-shells ash. Journal of Cleaner Production91: 279–287.
60.
Li PianiTWeerheijmJPeroniM, et al. (2020) Dynamic behaviour of adobe bricks in compression: The role of fibres and water content at various loading rates. Construction and Building Materials230: 117038.
61.
LohriCRDienerSZabaletaI, et al. (2017) Treatment technologies for urban solid biowaste to create value products: A review with focus on low- and middle-income settings. Reviews in Environmental Science and Biotechnology16: 81–130.
62.
Lozano-MirallesJAHermoso-OrzáezMJMartínez-GarcíaC, et al. (2018) Comparative study on the environmental impact of traditional clay bricks mixed with organic waste using life cycle analysis. Sustainability10: 2917.
63.
MadridMOrbeARojíE, et al. (2017) The effects of by-products incorporated in low-strength concrete for concrete masonry units. Construction and Building Materials153: 117–128.
64.
MadurwarMVRalegaonkarRVMandavganeSA (2013) Application of agro-waste for sustainable construction materials: A review. Construction and Building Materials38: 872–878.
65.
MagnussonSJohanssonMFrosthS, et al. (2019) Coordinating soil and rock material in urban construction e Scenario analysis of material flows and greenhouse gas emissions. Journal of Cleaner Production241: 118236.
66.
MagnussonSLundbergKSvedbergB, et al. (2015) Sustainable management of excavated soil and rock in urban areas: A literature review. Journal of Cleaner Production93: 18–25.
67.
MarquesBTadeuAAntónioJ, et al. (2020) Mechanical, thermal and acoustic behaviour of polymer-based composite materials produced with rice husk and expanded cork by-products. Construction and Building Materials239: 117851.
68.
MasukaSGwenziWTungamiraiR (2018) Development, engineering properties and potential applications of unfired earth bricks reinforced by coal fly ash, lime and wood aggregates. Journal of Building Engineering18: 312–320.
69.
MohajeraniAHuiS-QMirzababaeiM, et al. (2019) Amazing types, properties, and applications of fibres in construction materials. Materials12: 2513.
70.
MorelJCharefR (2019) What are the barriers affecting the use of earth as a modern construction material in the context of circular economy?IOP Conference Series Earth and Environmental Science225: 012053.
71.
MuñozPLetelierVMuñozL, et al. (2020) Adobe bricks reinforced with paper & pulp wastes improving thermal and mechanical properties. Construction and Building Materials254: 119314.
72.
MuntoharASRahmanME (2014) Lightweight masonry block from oil palm kernel shell. Construction and Building Materials54: 477–484.
73.
NamboonruangWYongam-NuaiP (2016) Thermal, strength and leachability characteristics of cellulose fibre reinforced lime-soil brick. Key Engineering Materials703: 386–395.
74.
NisticòRLavagnaLVersaciD, et al. (2020) Chitosan and its char as fillers in cement-base composites: A case study. Boletin de la Sociedad Española de Cerámica y Vidrio59: 186–192.
75.
OskoueiAVAfzaliMMadadipourM (2017) Experimental investigation on mud bricks reinforced with natural additives under compressive and tensile tests. Construction and Building Materials142: 137–147.
76.
OuarguiABelouaggadiaNElbouariA, et al. (2018) Development of a cellulose-based insulating composite material for green buildings: Case of treated organic waste (paper, cardboard, hash). IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering353: 012018.
77.
Pacheco-TorgalFJalaliS (2012) Earth construction: Lessons from the past for future eco-efficient construction. Construction and Building Materials29: 512–519.
78.
PaesLABBezerraBSDeusRM, et al. (2019) Organic solid waste management in a circular economy perspective – A systematic review and SWOT analysis. Journal of Cleaner Production239: 118086.
79.
PerrottiD (2019) Evaluating urban metabolism assessment methods and knowledge transfer between scientists and practitioners: A combined framework for supporting practice-relevant research. Environment and Planning B: Urban Analytics and City Science46: 1458–1479.
80.
PerrottiD (2020) Urban metabolism: Old challenges, new frontiers and the research agenda ahead. In: VermaPSinghPSinghR, et al. (eds) Urban Ecology: Emerging Patterns and Social-Ecological Systems. Cambridge, MA: Elsevier, 17–32.
81.
PerrottiDIuorioO (2019) Green infrastructure in the space of flows: An urban metabolism approach to bridge environmental performance and user’s wellbeing. In: Lemes de OliveiraFMellI (eds) Planning Cities with Nature. Dordrecht: Springer, 265–277.
82.
PrendevilleSCherimEBockenN (2017) Circular cities: Mapping six cities in transition. Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions26: 171–194.
83.
PriyadharshiniPRamamurthyKRobinsonRG (2019) Influence of temperature and duration of thermal treatment on properties of excavated soil as fine aggregate in cement mortar. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering31: 04019137.
84.
PubuleJBlumbergaARomagnoliF, et al. (2015) Finding an optimal solution for biowaste management in the Baltic States. Journal of Cleaner Production88: 214–223.
85.
RahmanMEBoonALMuntoharAS, et al. (2014) Performance of masonry blocks incorporating palm oil fuel ash. Journal of Cleaner Production78: 195–201.
86.
RicciardiPGillariGCarnevale MiinoM, et al. (2020) Valorization of agro-industry residues in the building and environmental sector: A review. Waste Management & Research38:487–513.
87.
SaeliMPiccirilloCTobaldiDM, et al. (2018) A sustainable replacement for TiO2 in photocatalyst construction materials: Hydroxyapatite-based photocatalytic additives, made from the valorisation of food wastes of marine origin. Journal of Cleaner Production193: 115–127.
88.
ŠálJNovákováP (2019) Utilization of fermentation residues in the production of a brick block. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science290: 012034.
89.
SäynäjokiEKorbaPKallialaE, et al. (2018) GHG emissions reduction through urban planners’ improved control over earthworks: A case study in Finland. Sustainability10: 2859.
90.
SchögglJPStumpfLBaumgartnerRJ (2020) The narrative of sustainability and circular economy: A longitudinal review of two decades of research. Resources, Conservation & Recycling163: 105073.
91.
SharmaGKaurMPunjS, et al. (2020) Biomass as a sustainable resource for value-added modern materials: A review. Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining14: 673–695.
92.
SheppardAWGillespieIHirschM, et al. (2011) Biosecurity and sustainability within the growing global bioeconomy. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability3: 4–10.
93.
SimionIMFortunaMEBonoliA, et al. (2013) Comparing environmental impacts of natural inert and recycled construction and demolition waste processing using LCA. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management21: 273–287.
94.
SobotkaABlajerM (2017) Earthworks logistics in the high density urban development conditions – Case study. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering251: 012047.
95.
SofiMSabriYZhouZ, et al. (2019) Transforming municipal solid waste into construction materials. Sustainability11: 2661.
96.
StephanAAthanassiadisA (2018) Towards a more circular construction sector: Estimating and spatialising current and future non-structural material replacement flows to maintain urban building stocks. Resources, Conservation & Recycling129: 248–262.
97.
SyarifMSampebuluVTjarongeMW (2018) Analysis of the physical properties of alternative cement made from recycled waste material. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology9: 1441–1450.
98.
TorkamanJAshoriASadr MomtaziA (2014) Using wood fiber waste, rice husk ash, and limestone powder waste as cement replacement materials for lightweight concrete blocks. Construction and Building Materials50: 432–436.
WalshDMc RaeIZirngiblR, et al. (2018) Generation rate and fate of surplus soil extracted in New York City. Science of the Total Environment650: 3093–3100.
101.
WilsonDC (ed.) (2015) Global Waste Management Outlook. Nairobi: International Solid Waste Association (ISWA) and United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), United Nations Environment Programme.
102.
YoonHParkSLeeK, et al. (2004) Oyster shell as substitute for aggregate in mortar. Waste Management and Research22: 158.
103.
YunBYChoMHKimUY, et al. (2020) Circular reutilization of coffee waste for sound absorbing panels: A perspective on material recycling. Environmental Research184: 109281.
104.
ZellerVTowaEDegrezM, et al. (2019) Urban waste flows and their potential for a circular economy model at city-region level. Waste Management83: 83–94
105.
ZhangNDuanHSunP, et al. (2020) Characterizing the generation and environmental impacts of subway-related excavated soil and rock in China. Journal of Cleaner Production248: 119242.
