Kitchen waste (KW) has gradually become a prominent problem in municipal solid waste treatment. Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a promising method used to make fuel oil from food and KW. However, the upgrading of bio-oil is particularly important for the sake of industrial reuse. In this study, the KW from university restaurants was subjected to HTL experiments in order to study theoretical feasibility. With the change of conversion temperature and residence time, the optimal conversion working conditions in this study were determined according to the quality and yield of the bio-oil. Moreover, the bio-oil upgrading effects of different additives (hydrogen chloride, sodium hydroxide, and iron(III) chloride) on the HTL of KW were studied. Alkaline additives have an inhibitory effect on the bio-oil yield and positive effect on coke yield. Acidic additives and iron (Fe)-containing additives can promote bio-oil yield. As an important aspect of upgrading, the effect on the nitrogen content of bio-oil with additives was revealed. The alkaline and Fe-containing additives have little effect on reducing the viscosity of the bio-oil while with the appropriate ratio (2.5 mol•kg−1) of acidic additives to the raw material, the static and dynamic fluidity of the oil phase products are reduced to about 0.1 Pa•s.
AbdullahNChinNL (2010) Simplex-centroid mixture formulation for optimised composting of kitchen waste. Bioresource Technology101: 8205–8210.
2.
BehrendtFNeubauerYOevermannM, et al. (2008) Direct liquefaction of biomass. Chemical Engineering & Technology: Industrial Chemistry-Plant Equipment-Process Engineering-Biotechnology31: 667–677.
3.
BongCPCLimLYLeeCT, et al. (2018) The characterisation and treatment of food waste for improvement of biogas production during anaerobic digestion: A review. Journal of Cleaner Production172: 1545–1558.
4.
BühlerWDinjusEEdererHJ, et al. (2002) Ionic reactions and pyrolysis of glycerol as competing reaction pathways in near-and supercritical water. The Journal of Supercritical Fluids22: 37–53.
5.
ChenWHLinYYLiuHC, et al. (2019) A comprehensive analysis of food waste derived liquefaction bio-oil properties for industrial application. Applied Energy237: 283–291.
6.
ChenYMZhanLTLiYC (2010) Development of leachate mounds and control of leachate-related failures at MSW landfills in humid regions. In: The 6th international congress on environmental geotechnics, New Delhi, India, 8–12 November 2010,. 76–98.
7.
DénielMHaarlemmerGRoubaudA, et al. (2016a) Energy valorisation of food processing residues and model compounds by hydrothermal liquefaction. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews54: 1632–1652.
8.
DenielMHaarlemmerGRoubaudA, et al. (2016b) Bio-oil production from food processing residues: Improving the bio-oil yield and quality by aqueous phase recycle in hydrothermal liquefaction of blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum L.) pomace. Energy & Fuels30: 4895–4904.
9.
DingLChengJQiaoD, et al. (2017) Investigating hydrothermal pretreatment of food waste for two-stage fermentative hydrogen and methane co-production. Bioresource Technology241: 491–499.
10.
DuZMohrMMaX, et al. (2012) Hydrothermal pretreatment of microalgae for production of pyrolytic bio-oil with a low nitrogen content. Bioresource Technology120: 13–18.
11.
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2017) Food losses and waste: Issues and policy options. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/ca1431en/CA1431EN.pdf (accessed 10 May 2020).
12.
FrancoJMPartalPCondeB, et al. (2000) Influence of pH and protei thermal treatment on the rheology of pea protein-stabilized oil-in-water emulsions. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society77: 975–984.
13.
GallifuocoATaglieriLScimiaF, et al. (2018) Hydrothermal conversions of waste biomass: Assessment of kinetic models using liquid-phase electrical conductivity measurements. Waste Management77: 586–592.
14.
GirimathSSinghD (2019) Effects of bio-oil on performance characteristics of base and recycled asphalt pavement binders. Construction and Building Materials227: 116684.
15.
GundersDBloomJ (2017) Wasted: How America is losing up to 40 percent of its food from farm to fork to landfill. Natural Resources Defense Council. Issues–Food and Agriculture. Available at: http://www.nrdc.org/food/files/wasted-food-IP.pdf (accessed 2 September 2020).
16.
HaarlemmerGGuizaniCAnoutiS, et al. (2016) Analysis and comparison of bio-oils obtained by hydrothermal liquefaction and fast pyrolysis of beech wood. Fuel174: 180–188.
17.
HafidHSShahUKMBaharuddinAS, et al. (2017) Feasibility of using kitchen waste as future substrate for bioethanol production: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews74: 671–686.
18.
HePZhaoLZhengW, et al. (2013) Energy balance of a biodrying process for organic wastes of high moisture content: A review. Drying Technology31: 132–145.
19.
HiltunenSHeiskanenIBackfolkK (2018) Effect of hydrothermal treatment of microfibrillated cellulose on rheological properties and formation of hydrolysis products. Cellulose25: 4653–4662.
20.
JenaUDasKC (2011) Comparative evaluation of thermochemical liquefaction and pyrolysis for bio-oil production from microalgae. Energy & Fuels25: 5472–5482.
21.
KanaveliIPAtzemiMLoisE (2017) Predicting the viscosity of diesel/biodiesel blends. Fuel199: 248–263.
22.
KaushikRParshettiGKLiuZ, et al. (2014) Enzyme-assisted hydrothermal treatment of food waste for co-production of hydrochar and bio-oil. Bioresource Technology168: 267–274.
23.
KimSJUmBH (2020) Biocrude production from Korean native kenaf through subcritical hydrothermal liquefaction under mild alkaline catalytic conditions. Industrial Crops and Products145: 112001.
24.
LiXMXieQTZhuJ, et al. (2019) Chitosan hydrochloride/carboxymethyl starch complex nanogels as novel Pickering stabilizers: Physical stability and rheological properties. Food Hydrocolloids93: 215–225.
25.
LiYJinYLiJ, et al. (2016) Current situation and development of kitchen waste treatment in China. Procedia Environmental Sciences31: 40–49.
26.
LoizidouMAlamanouDGSotiropoulosA, et al. (2017) Pilot scale system of two horizontal bioreactors for bioethanol production from household food waste at high solid concentrations. Waste and Biomass Valorization8: 1709–1719.
MalinsK (2017) Production of bio-oil via hydrothermal liquefaction of birch sawdust. Energy Conversion and Management144: 243–251.
29.
MardoyanABraunP (2015) Analysis of Czech subsidies for solid biofuels. International Journal of Green Energy12: 405–408.
30.
MaroušekJBartošPFilipM, et al. (2020) Advances in the agrochemical utilization of fermentation residues reduce the cost of purpose-grown phytomass for biogas production. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects. Epub ahead of print 16 March 2020. DOI: 10.1080/15567036.2020.1738597.
31.
MaroušekJMarouškováAMyškováK, et al. (2015) Techno-economic assessment of collagen casings waste management. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology12: 3385–3390.
32.
PosmanikRMartinezCMCantero-TubillaB, et al. (2018) Acid and alkali catalyzed hydrothermal liquefaction of dairy manure digestate and food waste. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering6: 2724–2732.
33.
RamirezJABrownRJRaineyTJ (2015) A review of hydrothermal liquefaction bio-crude properties and prospects for upgrading to transportation fuels. Energies8: 6765–6794.
34.
Ramos-TerceroEABertuccoABrilmanDWF (2015) Process water recycle in hydrothermal liquefaction of microalgae to enhance bio-oil yield. Energy & Fuels29: 2422–2430.
35.
RezaMTAndertJWirthB, et al. (2014) Hydrothermal carbonization of biomass for energy and crop production. Applied Bioenergy1: 11–29.
36.
RosatellaAASimeonovSPFradeRF, et al. (2011) 5-Hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) as a building block platform: Biological properties, synthesis and synthetic applications. Green Chemistry13: 754–793.
37.
RossABBillerPKubackiML, et al. (2010) Hydrothermal processing of microalgae using alkali and organic acids. Fuel89: 2234–2243.
38.
SahuNSharmaAMishraP, et al. (2017) Evaluation of biogas production potential of kitchen waste in the presence of spices. Waste Management70: 236–246.
39.
SaqibNUSharmaHBBaroutianS, et al. (2019) Valorisation of food waste via hydrothermal carbonisation and techno-economic feasibility assessment. Science of the Total Environment690: 261–276.
40.
SpeightJG (2015) Handbook of Petroleum Product Analysis. 2nd edition.Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
41.
SrinivasSTDalaiAKBakhshiNN (2000) Thermal and catalytic upgrading of a biomass-derived oil in a dual reaction system. The Canadian Journal of Chemical Engineering78: 343–354.
42.
StehelVHorákJVochozkaM (2019) Prediction of institutional sector development and analysis of enterprises active in agriculture. Available at: https://otik.uk.zcu.cz/bitstream/11025/36040/1/Stehel.pdf (accessed on 2 September 2020).
43.
TaghipourARamirezJABrownRJ, et al. (2019) A review of fractional distillation to improve hydrothermal liquefaction biocrude characteristics; future outlook and prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews115: 109355.
44.
ToorSSRosendahlLRudolfA (2011) Hydrothermal liquefaction of biomass: A review of subcritical water technologies. Energy36: 2328–2342.
45.
WangCDingHZhangY, et al. (2020) Analysis of property variation and stability on the aging of bio-oil from fractional condensation. Renewable Energy148: 720–728.
46.
XiuSShahbaziA (2012) Bio-oil production and upgrading research: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews16: 4406–4414.
47.
XuDSavagePE (2017) Effect of temperature, water loading, and Ru/C catalyst on water-insoluble and water-soluble biocrude fractions from hydrothermal liquefaction of algae. Bioresource Technology239: 1–6.
48.
YangJYangL (2019) A review on hydrothermal co-liquefaction of biomass. Applied Energy250: 926–945.
49.
YangWLiXLiZ, et al. (2015a) Understanding low-lipid algae hydrothermal liquefaction characteristics and pathways through hydrothermal liquefaction of algal major components: Crude polysaccharides, crude proteins and their binary mixtures. Bioresource Technology196: 99–108.
50.
YangZKumarAHuhnkeRL (2015b) Review of recent developments to improve storage and transportation stability of bio-oil. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews50: 859–870.
51.
YinSTanZ (2012) Hydrothermal liquefaction of cellulose to bio-oil under acidic, neutral and alkaline conditions. Applied Energy92: 234–239.
52.
YuanJLiYWangG, et al. (2019) Biodrying performance and combustion characteristics related to bulking agent amendments during kitchen waste biodrying. Bioresource Technology284: 56–64.
53.
ZhangHLiGGuJ, et al. (2016) Influence of aeration on volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs) and NH3 emissions during aerobic composting of kitchen waste. Waste Management58: 369–375.
54.
ZhengJLZhuMQWuHT (2015) Alkaline hydrothermal liquefaction of swine carcasses to bio-oil. Waste Management43: 230–238.
55.
ZhouYEnglerNLiY, et al. (2020) The influence of hydrothermal operation on the surface properties of kitchen waste-derived hydrochar: Biogas upgrading. Journal of Cleaner Production. Epub ahead of print 20 June 2020. DOI: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.121020.
56.
ZhuZRosendahlLToorSS, et al. (2015) Hydrothermal liquefaction of barley straw to bio-crude oil: Effects of reaction temperature and aqueous phase recirculation. Applied Energy137: 183–192.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
