An analysis of penal policies of the United States and other industrialized countries since the l970s indicates a turn away from the rehabilitation ideology that had been pvevalent for decades before and an emphasis on punishment, deterrence, and especially incapacitation. Some of the principles behind the changing policies are strongly rooted in the culture of modern capitalist societies, namely, individual responsibility and efficiency. The implementation of penal policies and practices that are based on these culturally anchored principles may result in certain contradictions, such as the attribution of individual responsibility on the one hand and the surveillance of " dangerous" groups on the other. Nevertheless, penal policies based on these culturally embedded principles are likely to prevail in the near future, but some changes such as limitations on capital punishment, slowing down on privatization, and a rethinking of rehabilitation might occur.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Allen, F.
(1981). The decline of the rehabilitative ideal. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
2.
Alter, J.
(2000, June 12). The death penalty on trial. Newsweek, pp. 24-34.
3.
Alter, J.
, & Miller, M. (2000, May 29). A life or death gamble. Newsweek, pp. 22-27.
4.
Anderson, C. W.
(1986). Pragmatic liberalism: Uniting theory and practice. In A. J. Damico (Ed.), Liberals on liberalism (pp. 201-219). Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.
5.
Auerhahn, K.
(1999). Selective incapacitation and the problem of prediction. Criminology, 4, 703-734.
6.
Austin, J.
(1996). The effect of "three strikes and you're out" on corrections. In D. Shichor & D. K. Sechrest (Eds.), Three strikes and you're out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 155-174). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
7.
Austin, J.
, Clark, J.,Hardyman, P., & Henry, D. A. (1999). The impact of the "three strikes and you're out."Punishment and Society, 1(2), 131-162.
8.
Austin, J.
, & Irwin, J. (2001). It's about time: America's imprisonment binge (3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
9.
Ayers, E. L.
(1984). Vengeance and justice: Crime and punishment in the 19th-century American south. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
10.
Baird, C.
(1993, March). The prison pays: Studies: research or ideology. NCCD Focus, pp. 1-7.
11.
Barak, G.
(Ed.). (1994). Media, process, and the social construction of crime: Studies in news making criminology. New York, NY: Garland.
12.
Bean, P.
(1981). Punishment: A philosophical and criminological inquiry. Oxford, England: Martin Robertson.
13.
Beckett, K.
, & Sasson, T. (2000). The politics of injustice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.
14.
Bell, D.
(1978). The cultural contradictions of capitalism. New York, NY: Basic Books.
15.
Bellah, R. N.
, Madsen, R., Sullivan, W. M., Swidler, A., & Tipton, S. M. (1985). Habits of the heart: Individualism and commitment in American life. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
16.
Benekos, P. J.
, & Merlo, A. V. (1995). Three strikes and you're out! The political sentencing game. Federal Probation, 59(1), 3-9.
17.
Bidinotto, J. R.
(1994a). Crime and moral retribution. In J. R. Bidinotto (Ed.), Criminal justice? The legal system versus individual responsibility (pp. 181-200). Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: The Foundation for Economic Education.
18.
Bidinotto, J. R.
(1994b). Criminal responsibility. In J. R. Bidinotto (Ed.), Criminal justice? The legal system versus individual responsibility (pp. 5-25). Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: The Foundation for Economic Education.
19.
Blomberg, T. G.
(1995). Beyond metaphors: Penal reform as net-widening. In T. G. Blomberg & S. Cohen (Eds.), Punishment and social control (pp. 45-61). New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
20.
Blumstein, A.
(1983). Selective incapacitation as a means of crime control. American Behavioral Scientist, 27(1), 87-108.
21.
Boatman, K.
(1994). The power to lift. The Keepers Voice, 15(40), 23-24.
22.
Bottoms, A. E.
(1980). An introduction to the "the coming crisis." In A. E. Bottoms & R. H. Preston (Eds.), The coming penal crisis: A criminological and theological exploration (pp. 1-24). Edinburgh, Scotland: Scottish Academic Press.
23.
Bowman, G. W.
, Hakim, S., & Seidenstat, P. (Eds.). (1993). Privatizing correctional institutions. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
24.
Braithwaite, J. B.
(1989). Crime, shame and reintegration. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
25.
Braithwaite, J. B.
(1998). Restorative justice. In M. Tonry (Ed.), The handbook of crime and punishment (pp. 323-344). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
26.
Christie, N.
(1993). Crime control as industry. New York, NY: Routledge, Chapman and Hall.
27.
Clark, J. L.
(1998). Report to the Attorney General: Inspection and review of the Northeast Ohio Correctional Center. Washington, DC: Office of the Corrections Trustee for the District of Columbia.
28.
Clark, J.
, Austin, J., & Henry, A. D. (1997). "Three strikes and you're out": A review of state legislation. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice (Research in Brief).
29.
Clear, T. R.
(1994). Harm in American penology. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
30.
Cohen, L. E.
, & Felson, M. (1979). Social change and crime trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 588-608.
31.
Cohen, S.
(1985). Visions of social control. Cambridge, England: Polity.
32.
Cripe, C. A.
(1997). Legal aspects of corrections management. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.
33.
Cullen, F. T.
, Cullen, J. B., & Wozniak, J. F. (1988). Is rehabilitation dead? The myth of the punitive public. Journal of Criminal Justice, 16, 303-317.
34.
Cullen, F. T.
, & Gilbert, K. E. (1982). Reaffirming rehabilitation. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson.
35.
Cullen, F.
, Latessa, E. J., Burton, V. S., Jr., & Lombardo, L. X. (1993). The correctional orientation of prison wardens: Is the rehabilitation ideal supported?Criminology, 31, 69-92.
36.
DeHoog, R. H.
(1984). Contracting out for human services. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
37.
Dilulio, J. J., Jr.
(1987). Governing prisons: A comparative study of correctional management. New York, NY: The Free Press.
38.
Dilulio, J. J., Jr.
(1988). What is wrong with private prisons?The Public Interest, 92, 66-83.
39.
Dilulio, J. J., Jr.
(1991). No escape. New York, NY: Basic Books.
40.
Donziger, S. R.
(1996). The real war on crime: The report of the National Criminal Justice Commission. New York, NY: Harper & Row.
41.
Duff, R. A.
, & Garland, D. (1994). Introduction: Thinking about punishment. In R. A. Duff& D. Garland (Eds.), A reader on punishment (pp. 143). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
42.
Durham, A. M., III
. (1989). Origins of interest in the privatization of punishment: The nineteenth and the twentieth century American experience. Criminology, 27, 107-139.
43.
Durkheim, E.
(1947). The division of labor in society. Glencoe, IL: The Free Press.
44.
Easton, S. T.
(Ed.). (1998). Privatizing correctional services. Vancouver, Canada: The Fraser Institute.
45.
Elikann, P. T.
(1996). Te tough-on-crime myth: Real solutions to cut crime. New York, NY: Insight Books.
46.
Ethridge, P. A.
, & Marquart, J. W. (1993). Private prisons in Texas: The penology for profit. Justice Quarterly, 10, 29-48.
47.
Feeley, M. M.
(1991). The privatization of prisons in historical perspective. Criminal Justice Bulletin, 6(2), 1-10.
48.
Feeley, M. M.
, & Kamin, S. (1996). Te effect of "three strikes and you're out" on the courts: Looking back to see the future. In D. Shichor& D. K. Sechrest (Eds.), Three strikes and you're out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 135-154). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
49.
Feeley, M. M.
, & Simon, J. (1992). The new penology: Notes on the emerging strategy of corrections and its implications. Criminology, 30, 449-474.
50.
Fogel, D.
(1975). "...We are the living proof... ": The justice model for corrections. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company.
51.
Foucault, M.
(1979). Discipline and punish: The birth of the prison. New York, NY: Vintage.
52.
Fuller, J. R.
(1998). Criminal justice: A peacemaking perspective. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
53.
Galaway, B.
, &Hudson, J. (Eds.). (1996). Restorative justice: International perspectives. Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
54.
Garland, D.
(1990). Punishment and modern society. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
55.
Garland, D.
(1991). Punishment and culture: The symbolic dimension of criminal justice. In A. Sarat & S. S. Sibley (Eds.), Studies in law, politics, and society (Vol. 11, pp. 191-222). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
56.
Garland, D.
(1995). Penal modernism and post modernism. In T. G. Blomberg & S. Cohen (Eds.), Punishment and social control (pp. 181-209). New York, NY: Aldine de Gruyter.
57.
Garland, D.
, & Young, P. (1983). Toward a social analysis of penality. In D. Garland & P. Young (Eds.), The power to punish (pp. 1-36). Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities Press.
58.
Geis, G.
(1996). A base on balls for white-collar criminals. In D. Shichor & D. K. Sechrest (Eds.), Three strikes and you `re out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 244-264). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
59.
Gendreau, P.
, & Ross, R. (1987). Revivification of rehabilitation: Evidence from the 1980s. Justice Quarterly, 4(3), 349-407.
60.
Gibbs, J. P.
(1975). Crime, punishment, and deterrence. New York, NY: Elsevier.
61.
Gottfredson, D. M.
, &Tonry, M. (Eds.). (1987). Prediction and classification: Criminal justice decision making. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
62.
Gottfredson, M. R.
(1982). The social scientist and rehabilitative crime policy. Criminology, 20, 29-42.
63.
Greenberg, D.
, & Humphries, D. (1980). The co-optation of fixed sentencing refonm. Crime and Delinquency, 26, 206-225.
64.
Greenwood, P. W.
, & Abrahamse, A. (1982). Selective incapacitation. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
65.
Greenwood, P. W.
, Rydell, C. P., Abrahamse, A. F., Caulkins, J. P., Chiesa, J., Model, K. E., & Klein, S. P. (1994). Three strikes and you're out: Estimated benefits and costs of California's new mandatory sentencing law. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
66.
Habermas, J.
(1973). Legitimation crisis. Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
67.
Harding, R.
(1997). Private prisons and public accountability. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
68.
Harland, A.
(1996). Towards a restorative justice future. In B. Galaway & J. Hudson (Eds.), Restorative justice: International perspectives (pp. 505-516). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
69.
Hills, S. L.
(Ed.). (1987). Corporate violence: Injury and death for profit. Totowa, NJ: Rowman and Littlefield.
70.
Hofstadter, R.
(1944). Social Darwinism in American thought. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press.
71.
Hudson, J.
, & Galaway, B. (1996). Introduction. In B. Galaway & J. Hudson (Eds.), Restorative justice: International perspectives (pp. 1-14). Monsey, NY: Criminal Justice Press.
72.
Ignatieff, M.
(1978). A just measure of pain. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
73.
Inglehart, R.
(1997). Modernization and postmodernization. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
74.
Irwin, J.
, & Austin, J. (1994). It is about time: America's imprisonment binge. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
75.
James, A. L.
, Bottomley, A. K., Liebling, A., & Clare, E. (1997). Privatizing prisons: Rhetoric and reality. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
76.
Jenkins, P.
(1984). Crime and justice: Issues and ideas. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
77.
Johnson, W. W.
, Bennett, K., & Flanagan, T. J. (1997). Getting tough on prisoners: Results from the National Corrections Executives Survey, 1995. Crime and Delinquency, 43(1), 24-41.
78.
Karmen, A.
(1996). Crime victims: An introduction to victimology. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
79.
King, R. D.
(1999). The rise and rise of supermax: An American solution in search of a problem?Punishment & Society, 1(2),163-186.
80.
Kurki, L.
(1999). Incorporating restorative and community justice into American sentencing and corrections. Washington, DC: National Justice Institute (Research in Brief).
81.
Lee, R. D., Jr.
(1996). Prisoners' rights to recreation: Quantity, quality, and other aspects. Journal of Criminal Justice, 24(2), 167-178.
82.
Legislative Service Commission
. (1995). Final analysis: Sub. S B. 2. 121 General Assembly. Columbus, OH: State of Ohio.
83.
Liebman, J. S.
, Fagan, J., & West, V. (2000). A broken system: Error rates in capital cases, 1973-1995. Columbia Law School, www.columbia.edu/news.
84.
Lilly, J. R.
, & Knepper, P. (1992). An international perspective on the privatization of corrections. The Howard Journal, 31, 174-191.
85.
Locke, J.
(1955). On civil government. Chicago, IL: Henry Regnery.
86.
Logan, C. H.
(1990). Private prisons: Cons and pros. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
87.
Madrid v. Gomez, U.S. Dist. LEXIS 841 (N. D. Cal. 1995).
88.
Martinson, R.
(1974). What works? Questions and answers about prison reform. The Public Interest, 3S, 22-54.
89.
McAfee, W. M.
, & Shichor, D. (1990). An analysis of California's private prison experience in the 1850s. Criminal Justice History, 11, 89-103.
90.
McConville, S.
(1981). A history of English prison administration (Vol. 1). London, England: Routledge and Kegan Paul.
91.
McDonald, D. C.
(Ed.). (1990). Private prisons and the public interest. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
92.
McDonald, D. C.
, Fournier, E., Russell-Einhorn, E. M., & Crawford, S. (1998). Private prisons in the United States: An assessment of current practice. Cambridge, MA: Abt Associates.
93.
McMahon, M.
(1998). Control as enterprise: Some recent trends in privatization and criminal justice. In S. T. Easton (Ed.), Privatizing correctional services (pp. 107-126). Vancouver, Canada: The Fraser Institute.
94.
Morash, M.
, & Rucker, L. (1990). A critical look at the idea of boot camps as a correctional reform. Crime and Delinquency, 36(2), 204-222.
95.
Morris, N.
(1974). The future of imprisonment. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
96.
Morris, N.
, & Tonry, M. (1990). Between prison and probation: Intermediate punishment in a rational sentencing system. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
97.
Moyle, P.
(Ed.). (1994). Private prisons and police. Leichhardt, Australia NSW: Pluto Press.
98.
National Commission on Correctional Health Care
. (1997). Standard for health services in prison. Chicago, IL.
99.
National Institute of Justice
. (1998). Solicitation for research and evaluation on corrections and sentencing (1998). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
100.
PR Newswire. (2000, May 15). State to remove residents from Jena Juvenile Justice Center; WCC closes facility. www.prnewswire.com.
101.
Palmer, T.
(1994). Profile of correctional effectiveness and new directions for research. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
102.
Parent, D.
(1988, November). Shock incarceration and the attainment of sentencing and corrections goals. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Criminology, Chicago, IL.
103.
Pease, K.
(1985). Community service orders. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice (Vol. 6, pp. 51-94). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
104.
Pepinsky, H. E.
, & Quinney, R. (1991). Criminology as peacemaking. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
105.
Petersilia, J.
(1987). Expanding options for criminal sentencing. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
106.
Petersilia, J.
, & Greenwood, P. W. (1978). Mandatory prison sentences: Their projected effects on crime and prison population. Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 69, 604-615.
107.
Phillips, R. L.
, & McConnell, C. R. (1996). The effective corrections manager. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers.
108.
Platt, A. M.
(1974). The triumph of benevolence: The origins of the juvenile justice system in the United States. In R. Quinney (Ed.), Criminal justice in America: A critical understanding (pp. 356-389). Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
109.
Proband, S. C.
(1998). 1.7 million in prison and jail at mid-year `97. Overcrowded Times, 9(1), 2-3.
110.
Pugh, R. B.
(1968). Imprisonment in medieval England. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
111.
Quinney, R.
(1970). The social reality of crime. Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
112.
Radelet, M. L.
, Bedau, H. A., & Putnam, C. E. (1992). In spite of innocence: Erroneous convictions in capital cases. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
113.
Ritzer, G.
(1993). The McDonaldization of society. Newbury Park, CA: Pine Forge.
114.
Rosenfeld, R.
, & Kempf, K. (1991). The scope and purpose of corrections: Exploring alternative responses to crowding. Crime and Delinquency, 37, 481-503.
115.
Saint-Germain, M. A.
, & Calamia, RI A. (1996). Three strikes and you're in: A streams and windows model of incremental policy change. Journal of Criminal Justice, 24, 57-70.
116.
Scheck, B.
, Neufeld, P., & Dwyer, J. (2000). Actual innocence. New York, NY: Doubleday.
117.
Schwitzgebel, R. K.
(1971). Development and legal regulations of coercive techniques with offenders. Washington, DC: National Institute of Mental Health, Center for the Studies of Crime and Delinquency.
118.
Sechrest, D. K.
(1989). Prison "boot camps" do not measure up. Federal Probation, 53(3), 15-20.
119.
Seiter, R. P.
(1998). A rebirth of rehabilitation: The rebirth of the responsibility model. Corrections Management Quarterly, 2(1), 89-92.
120.
Sellin, T.
(1980). The penalty of death. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
121.
Sherman, L. W.
(2000). The defiant imagination: Consilience and the science of sanctions. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania (Albert M. Greenfield Memorial Lecture).
122.
Shichor, D.
(1987). Penal policies: Some recent trends. Legal Studies Forum, 11(1), 55-78.
123.
Shichor, D.
(1992). Following the penological pendulum: The survival of rehabilitation. Federal Probation, 56(2), 19-25.
124.
Shichor, D.
(1995). Punishment for profit: Private prisons/public concerns. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
125.
Shichor, D.
(1997). Three strikes as a public policy: The convergence of the new penology and the McDonaldization of punishment. Crime and Delinquency, 43(4), 479-492.
126.
Shichor, D.
(1998). Private prisons in perspective: Some conceptual issues. The Howard Journal, 37(1), 82-100.
127.
Shils, E.
(1997). The virtue of civility. Indianapolis, IN: Liberty Fund.
128.
Shinnar, R.
, & Shinnar, S. (1975). The effects of the criminal justice system on the control of crime: A quantitative approach. Law and Society Review, 9, 581-611.
129.
Shover, N.
, & Einstadter, W. J. (1988). Analyzing American corrections. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
130.
Simon, H. A.
(1966). Administrative behavior (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Free Press.
131.
Simon, J.
(1993). From confinement to waste management: The postmodernization of social control. Focus on Law, 8(2), 4, 6-7.
132.
Singer, R. G.
(1979). Just deserts: Sentencing based on equality and desert. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
133.
Skolnick, J. H.
(1982, November 16). Can we cull the worst offenders?Los Angeles Times, Part 3, p. 11.
134.
Smith, A.
(1937). The wealth of nations. New York, NY: Modern Library.
135.
Sparks, R.
(1996). Prisons, punishment, and penality. In E. McLaughlin & J. Muncie (Eds.), Controlling crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
136.
Starr, P.
(1989). The meaning of privatization. In S. Kanerman & A. J. Kahn (Eds.), Privatization and the welfare state (pp. 15-48). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
137.
Surette, R.
(1996). News from nowhere. Policy to follow: Media and the social construction of "three strikes and you're out." In D. Shichor& D. Sechrest (Eds.), Three strikes and you're out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 177-202). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
138.
Tawney, R. H.
(1966). Religion and the rise of capitalism. London, England: Penguin Books.
139.
Tonry, M.
(1997). Sentencing matters. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
140.
Turner, M. G.
, Sundt, I. L., Applegate, B. K., & Cullen, F. T. (1995). "Three-strikes and you're out" legislation: A national assessment. Federal Probation, 56(3), 16-35.
141.
van den Haag, E.
(1975). Punishing criminals: Concerning a very old and painful question. New York. NY: Basic Books.
142.
Van Dine, S.
, Conrad, J. P., & Dinitz, S. (1977). The incapacitation of the dangerous offender: A statistical experiment. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 14, 22-35.
143.
Van Ness, D.
, & Strong, K. H. (1997). Restoring justice. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson Publishing Company.
144.
Vass, A. A.
(1990). Alternatives to prison: Punishment, custody and the community. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
145.
Vaughn, M. S.
, & Carroll, L. (1998). Separate and unequal: Prison versus free-world medical care. Justice Quarterly, 15(1), 3-40.
146.
Vitiello, M.
(1997). Three strikes: Can we return to rationality?The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology, 87(2), 395-481.
147.
von Hirsch, A.
(1976). Doing justice: The choice of punishments. New York, NY: Hill and Wang.
148.
von Hirsch, A.
(1984). Selective incapacitation: A critique. NIJ/INCJRS, 183.
149.
Wasserstrom, R.
(1977). Some problems with theories of punishment. In J. B. Cederblom & W. L. Blizek (Eds.), Justice and punishment (pp. 173-196). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
150.
Weber, M.
(1958). The Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism. New York, NY: Scribners.
151.
Weber, M.
(1964). The theory of social and economic organization. New York, NY: The Free Press.
152.
Weber, M.
(1968). Economy and society. Totowa, NJ: Bedminster.
153.
Wolfgang, M. E.
, Figlio, R. M., & Sellin, T. (1972). Delinquency in a birth cohort. Chicago, IL: The University of Chicago Press.
154.
Zeigler, F. A.
, & del Carmen, R. V. (1996). Constitutional issues arising from "three strikes and you're out'? legislation. In D. Shichor & D. K. Sechrest (Eds.), Three strikes and you're out: Vengeance as public policy (pp. 3-23). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
155.
Zimring, F. E.
, & Hawkins, G. (1995). Incapacitation: Penal confinement and the restraint of crime. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
