Mobile Privacy and Security for Older Adults: A Systematic Review of Concerns,Risks,Usability,and Pathways for Support

Abstract

Despite the benefits of the widespread adoption of mobile technologies, older adults continue to face significant security and privacy challenges in their use of mobile devices, due to several factors. This often results in the avoidance of certain security and privacy mechanisms, leaving many older adults vulnerable to digital security challenges and privacy risks. This paper examines 41 peer-reviewed studies to investigate how older adults view and control mobile security and privacy mechanisms, risks, and challenges. We examine the perceptions around mobile security and privacy mechanisms and educational and support strategies. Our findings highlight how closely security and privacy concerns relate to system design and support, and user knowledge. It also emphasizes promising methods such as embedded social learning, tailored training, and policy recommendations to address highlighted issues, allowing developers and policymakers to more effectively instill confidence and facilitate better digital inclusion and mobile security and privacy of older adults.

What This Paper Adds

• Synthesizes 41 studies on older adults’ mobile device use with a focus on privacy and security mechanisms and their usability.

• Identifies how age-related changes and design mismatches create risks in mobile security and privacy interactions.

• Highlights the role of interpersonal and community-based learning in addressing security gaps for older adults.

Applications of Study Findings

• Provides applicable insights for designing age-friendly security tools and interfaces.

• Supports policy development for digital literacy programs and protective legislation targeting older users.

• Offers a research foundation for future studies exploring the inclusive use of mobile security and privacy technologies among older adults.

Introduction

The rise of mobile technologies has introduced new ways in which people interact with the world, with portable devices becoming an essential part of communication and accessing resources in modern life. From cell phones, smartphones, iPods, to tablets, and other devices, this surge of mobile devices occurred within a relatively short period, presenting both opportunities and challenges for different demographics of society. As technology continues to evolve, the need to adapt to modifications and newer solutions is constant. Younger generations often quickly embrace these advancements as they gradually become standard. Older adults (i.e., individuals aged 60+), on the other hand, have faced more difficulty in keeping up, often feeling overwhelmed by the pace of change. To some older adults, concepts like mobile connectivity and portable media seemed impossible a few decades ago, but with the development of these innovations, they find themselves grappling with a “new normal” that felt foreign and intimidating, causing them to restrict themselves to only core functions such as calling and SMS on mobile devices and feeling left behind (Busch et al., 2021; Shimokihara et al., 2024). Others have shown a strong desire to learn and acquire skills to stay in touch with the digital world (Chiu et al., 2016; Kurniawan, 2006).

As with other demographic groups, older adults are increasingly utilizing mobile devices for various purposes, including banking, communication, and accessing healthcare services (Petrovcic et al., 2019). This acceptance has resulted in significant efforts to make technology in these sectors more accessible and usable (Boise et al., 2013). However, with the prevalent use of mobile devices and the increasing need to share personal information, concerns about security and privacy risks on mobile devices continue to rise. Older adults, in particular, are more exposed to these risks due to factors like limited digital literacy and unfamiliarity with security protocols. This is heightened by age-related factors such as memory decline (Frik et al., 2019). The perceived risks among older adults create fear, deter them from online engagements, and lead some to avoid technology entirely (Quan-Haase & Ho, 2020; Ray et al., 2019). While general discussions often focus on threats like data breaches and financial fraud, this review suggests that older adults’ primary concerns may be more closely tied to the basic usability and cognitive demands of the technology itself. Prior research has shown that educational programs can be effective in improving older adults’ digital competencies, specifically demonstrating positive effects on knowledge and self-efficacy related to digital health literacy (Dong et al., 2023). However, despite a lot of research and development effort going into creating new mobile applications and understanding factors affecting their use, focus on mobile security and privacy mechanisms’ adoption and training among older adults has been limited, with often more studies focusing on the needs of younger adults.

A better understanding of the challenges of mobile security and privacy technology adoption, particularly among older adults, is a first step in attempts to improve their overall experience with these technologies. However, the range of concerns is expansive, encompassing usability issues (Al-Razgan et al., 2012; Gao & Sun, 2015; Hwangbo et al., 2013) and data and surveillance concerns (Žvanut & Mihelič, 2024). These issues often intersect with age-related changes and cognitive limitations (Ziefle & Bay, 2005), thus creating stronger barriers and lesser digital inclusion among older adults.

The main goal of this study is to explore older adults’ use of mobile security and privacy mechanisms, such as password managers, antivirus software, and two-factor authentication. By reviewing existing research in this area, we examine specific challenges and issues faced by older adults when using mobile devices, in light of their vulnerabilities and limitations. We look at the factors influencing these limitations and examine the perceptions on the use of security and privacy mechanisms, as well as the effectiveness of existing educational strategies. We propose potential practical development and training strategies that would support older adults in navigating the new technological world, especially in terms of mobile security and privacy. Although many studies focus on the usability of mobile devices and applications, discussions relating to mobile security and privacy among older adults are prevalent in some studies. This systematic review synthesizes these discussions, providing a concise and complete view of mobile security and privacy technology perceptions among older adults. In addition, we focus on discussions on the use of newer security and privacy mechanisms in mobile devices among older adults and the development of strategies to support older adults’ adoption of these mechanisms.

Objectives

The objective of this systematic review is to conduct a comprehensive exploration of the published literature to address the following research themes and questions:

1. Older Adults’ Perceptions of Mobile Security and Privacy Risks: What are the primary security and privacy concerns of older adults when using mobile devices, and how do they perceive the associated risks?

2. Threat Landscape and Contributing Factors: What common security and privacy threats do older adults face, and what factors contribute to these risks?

3. Usability and Effectiveness of Mobile Security Tools: How effective and user-friendly are existing security and privacy mechanisms (e.g., password managers, antivirus, and two-factor authentication) for older adults?

4. Risky Design Features and Opportunities for Improvement: What types of mobile application designs and security/privacy features present the most risks, and how can they be improved to reduce risks and enhance usability for older adults?

5. Educational Interventions, Policy Measures, and Their Effectiveness: What educational strategies have been proposed to improve older adults’ understanding and management of mobile security and privacy, and how do existing policies and regulations support them? How effective have these approaches been?

Method

The review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021) for the reporting of systematic reviews. Based on the earlier stated objectives, the inclusion and exclusion criteria, as well as the search procedure and data synthesis approach employed, are described below.

Inclusion Criteria

As our primary focus was on mobile security and privacy mechanisms, and their usability by older adults, we included studies addressing these topics to varying degrees. Research articles mentioning cybersecurity risks, data protection strategies, and user perceptions of privacy, with some focus on older adults, were included. Studies investigating interface design, accessibility features, and cognitive demands concerning security and privacy on mobile devices for older adults were also deemed relevant. Additionally, articles discussing age-related challenges affecting the adoption of security and privacy technology were also included.

To ensure a thorough and multidimensional review, we incorporated studies employing surveys, quantitative assessments, qualitative interviews, or mixed-method approaches to evaluate mobile device usage, mobile security and privacy technologies, and usability among older adults. This encompassed both experimental and observational studies, including case studies. Given that mobile devices may vary widely, we included studies that considered cell phones, smartphones, and tablet devices in their discussion and considered older adults in their discussion. For studies involving older adults, a minimum age of 60 years was selected for a broader scope.

Exclusion Criteria

Studies were excluded if they did not examine older adults, mobile devices, and security and privacy. This includes studies with aging-related topics without connection to mobile security or privacy, or studies involving participants younger than 60 years old. Research focused on mobile technologies for health monitoring, physical activity tracking, medical diagnosis, or therapy interventions, such as wearables, remote patient monitoring, or clinical mobile apps, was also excluded unless they focus on security, privacy, and usability issues, rather than health evaluations.

Studies centered on specific mobile communication methods, such as social media use, messaging apps, or video calls, were excluded unless they explicitly dealt with security, privacy, or usability issues within these contexts. In addition, studies that looked solely at the design, development, or feasibility of novel mobile technologies without considering their use for older adults were also excluded. This review also excluded editorials and letters.

Search Procedure

The following key electronic databases were searched, with n as the number of results that completely matched our criteria: Google Scholar (n = 470), ResearchGate (n = 70), ScienceDirect (n = 30), and JSTOR (n = 80). The search was conducted in February 2025. Search terms were adapted for each database using a combination of keywords and subject headings relevant to mobile security issues for older adults. Core search terms were drawn from key papers, including “older adults,” “mobile security,” and “privacy,” along with related synonyms and variations. All retrieved records were exported to Mendeley Reference Manager for duplicate removal, eliminating 58 duplicate entries. Two independent reviewers screened all titles and abstracts of the remaining records (n = 592). Additional articles (n = 532) were excluded during this phase based on the criteria stated above.

Full-text review of 60 articles led to further exclusions for the following reasons: non-research studies such as opinion pieces or conference summaries (n = 9), studies not focusing on older adults or their security issues (n = 4), and studies unrelated to mobile security or addressing other topics like usability or general technology use (n = 6). The final review included 41 studies. Citation tracking, both backward and forward, did not yield any additional eligible articles. Throughout the screening process, both reviewers worked independently and followed PRISMA guidelines to ensure transparency and methodological rigor. A visual summary of the article selection process is presented in the PRISMA flow diagram in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

PRISMA flowchart diagram.

Data Extraction and Synthesis

A custom data extraction form was developed to capture key details from each study, including study authors, publication year, sample demographics, study design, data collection methods, and key findings related to mobile security for older adults. Due to the diversity of study designs, populations, and mobile security evaluation methods, a narrative synthesis was performed. This method involved systematically compiling and describing the evidence from the studies included. During this phase, a broad range of initial concepts were noted, such as usability problems with authentication, fear of financial fraud, difficulty understanding privacy settings, and the need for hands-on training. The findings were iteratively refined and grouped into overarching, descriptive categories to structure the presentation of results, which are detailed in the Results section.

Results

A total of 650 articles were identified for this study. Following the removal of duplicates and the application of inclusion and exclusion criteria, 60 full-text articles were obtained and reviewed. Overall, 41 papers met the criteria and were incorporated into the review, as shown in the search process in Figure 1. Table 1 shows some of the outcomes of our analysis process, including the study’s population and country. The table also indicates which of the five research questions (a–e) are addressed by each included study. The results discussed in this section are structured into subsections corresponding to the five research questions (RQ) addressed by this systematic review: (a) Older Adults’ Perceptions of Mobile Security and Privacy Risks; (b) Threat Landscape and Contributing Factors; (c) Usability and Effectiveness of Mobile Security Tools; (d) Risky Design Features and Opportunities for Improvement; and (e) Educational Interventions, Policy Measures, and Their Effectiveness. As seen in Table 1, about 40% of the included studies address each of these themes, except for RQ (c), which was addressed by less than 8% of the studies.

Table 1.

Summary of Research Methods, Questions, Findings, and Our Research Questions (RQ) Addressed From Included Studies

Paper and Country	Methodology and Population	Questions	Findings/Results	RQ
Frik et al., 2019	Semi-structured interviews	What are common security and privacy concerns and threat models, behaviors and strategies to mitigate perceived risks, usability issues with current protections, learning and troubleshooting approaches, and misconceptions.	Health, living situation, and finances shape privacy concerns and cause limiting of technology use. These may also increase vulnerability; for example, seniors in care facilities frequently sacrifice privacy and security. Many use shared devices and public internet without understanding risks. Physical and cognitive limitations hinder learning about privacy protections, resulting in low confidence in security.	a
USA	46 adults			b
				c
				e
Boise et al., 2013	Longitudinal survey	Assess 1-year willingness to share health/activity data with doctors or family and privacy/security concerns. Determine if unobtrusive monitoring influences sharing willingness and privacy concerns. Compare attitudes between participants with mild cognitive impairment and those without.	Most respondents were open to unobtrusive home monitoring, especially for activity and computer use reporting, with no change in willingness over a year. High acceptance likely stems from awareness of medical monitoring tech, but many voiced increasing concerns about intrusion and unauthorized access over time.	a
USA	119 adults			b
Chen et al., 2013	Qualitative and quantitative surveys and focus groups	What benefits do mobile phones provide for older adults? What challenges do older adults face? How can mobile design be improved for older adults?	Older adults use smartphones for basic functions but struggle with advanced features and need help from family or stores. They want more training to be independent.	d
Hong Kong	100 adults			e
Chia et al., 2017	Surveys	Main threats to which elderly users of smart mobile devices are generally exposed. Survey has questions about general security, loss/theft, and unauthorized access.	Participants worry about ads in downloaded apps. Uncertainty about device information affects all users, not just those the literate or Chinese-speaking, due to unclear responses and potential risks. As device features increase, digital immigrants may struggle to adapt. 87.3% (48) of participants have limited or no understanding of phishing.	a
Australia, USA	55 adults, Chinese			b
				e
Chiu et al., 2016	Qualitative and quantitative analysis	How does touchscreen training affect older adults’ usage? What challenges do older adults face with touchscreen devices? How do apps impact older adults’ well-being?	Older adults improved confidence, reduced anxiety, and had better eHealth knowledge after training. Those with prior internet experience and family support continued using apps.	e
Taiwan	39 adults
Czaja & Lee, 2007	Qualitative analysis	What challenges do older adults face with technology? How do age-related changes affect technology use? What design features improve accessibility for older adults?	Older adults struggle with complex technology due to cognitive and physical changes. Designers often overlook their needs, highlighting the need for more research and user involvement.	d
USA
De Barros et al., 2013)	Qualitative and quantitative analysis	How can smartphones help older adults stay active and reduce fall risk? What usability challenges do older adults face with smartphones? How does testing with older adults improve mobile app design?	Older adults had difficulty with navigation, swiping, and understanding terms. After layout adjustments, navigation improved, but issues with gestures, accidental presses remained.	d
Portugal, UK	9 adults
Quan-Haase & Elueze, 2018	Literature review and qualitative analysis	What are the social media-specific privacy concerns among users and non-users of social media of East York older adults? What types of privacy protection strategies are reported by users of social media in our sample of East York older adults?	Older adults prioritize restricting access to personal data, especially from organizations and governments, rather than avoiding social sharing. They worry about misuse by institutions and data selling by social media providers, highlighting concerns over institutional privacy. As a result, many avoid social media to protect their data.	a
Canada	40 adults
Gao & Sun, 2015	Quantitative analysis	What touch screen issues do older adults face with large devices? How do age, technology, and angle affect performance? What design guidelines improve usability?	Older adults made more errors with smaller buttons and closer spacing, particularly on optical screens. They were slower than younger participants, but button size improvements reduced their response time.	d
China	80 adults
Hanif & Lallie, 2021	Mixed-methods, survey, and quantitative analysis	Does an increase in perceived cyber security trust impact the use of (or intention to use) mobile banking applications?	Perceived cybersecurity risk affects mobile banking adoption, with concerns over hackers, lost phones, and misdirected funds. Banks can build trust by enhancing security, offering cybersecurity assurance, and user training.	a
UK	191 adults			b
				e
Hassan et al., 2008	Qualitative interviews and quantitative analysis	What problems do older adults face with mobile phones? How do older adults use mobile phones, and what issues do they encounter? Why is involving older adults in mobile phone design important?	Older adults preferred content-based navigation and struggled with icons and button interactions.	d
Malaysia	176 adults
Hwangbo et al., 2013	Experimental study	How does target size affect smartphone touchscreen performance in elderly users? What is the impact of feedback types on the usability of smartphones for elderly users? What usability challenges do elderly users face when interacting with smartphones?	Older adults, with an average age of 70.55 years, mostly had experience with touch screen interfaces, such as ATMs, but few had used mobile touch screens. Women were generally older than men in the study.	d
South Korea	22 adults
Iqbal et al., 2020	Surveys, evaluation of association post-test questionnaires, 40 adults	Privacy issues and challenges in different wallets and payment systems.	The fingerprint model is more consistent than the traditional but less learnable. User responses on a Likert scale rated learnability and memorability; the two-touch protocol was deemed satisfactory, enhancing security and control. All 40 participants endorsed using the digital wallet at POS, citing good usability and security.	c
Pakistan and Saudi Arabia
Elueze & Quan-Haase, 2018	Surveys and interviews and literature review	What privacy categories do older adults fall into? What kinds of privacy concerns do older adults have in each of the categories?	Fundamentalists fear online scams and hacking. Intense pragmatists acknowledge risks but share some info online. Relaxed pragmatists value privacy yet are less cautious digitally. Marginally concerned users feel safe due to low-risk activities. Cynical experts distrust privacy strategies, focus on surveillance, and doubt privacy threats.	a
Canada	40 adults			b
Ellefsen & Chen, 2022	In-depth semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis	Aims to understand the perceptions and experiences of older adults with privacy and data security in their use of online services.	Participants, though active online, struggle to understand their rights and adopt effective privacy strategies. They find password managers complicated and seek clearer guidance and training from authorities and service providers on regulations and risk management.	a
Norway	23 adults			c
				e
Kisekka et al., 2015	5-point Likert scale. Focus group interviews, online surveys, and cognitive interviews	Examined whether the following factors are associated with web-browsing safety efficacy (WSE) in older adults: A suspicious attitude toward unsolicited emails, risk aversion, perceived efficacy in finding information online, education in information technology, and perceived social connectivity.	The study found that older adults with prior IT education and greater confidence in finding information online tend to have higher web-browsing safety efficacy. Additionally, individuals with higher risk aversion also showed greater WSE. However, no significant association was found between WSE and either a suspicious attitude toward unsolicited emails or perceived social connectivity.	e
USA	97 adults
Kropczynski et al., 2021	Social network analysis and web-based survey	What individual (self-efficacy and power use), community (sense of belonging), and network (homophily) factors shape community collective efficacy for digital privacy and security? How can technology expertise be integrated to boost collective capacity when efficacy is low?	Older adults tend to engage with peers of similar tech skills. Community and individual factors influence collective efficacy; lower scores in one area often mean lower scores elsewhere. Self-efficacy, device use, and community belonging boost privacy and security collective efficacy, especially with strong community ties. Communities also tend to form based on demographic or shared traits.	a
USA	59 adults			e
Kurniawan, 2006	Focus groups, questionnaires, and qualitative and quantitative analysis	What challenges do older women face with mobile phones? What features make mobile phones user-friendly for older women? How do older women adapt to unfamiliar device?	Older women show a strong interest in learning about mobile technology and have a good understanding of features like MMS and roaming, despite age-related challenges and limited exposure to newer devices.	d
UK	7 adults
Lee, 2007	Quantitative survey	Why do older adults own mobile phones? How do older adults use their mobile phones? What usability issues do older adults face with their phones?	Older adults use phones for communication. Ease of use is the most important feature for them, while style and brand are less important. Usability issues include error messages, text input, and user manuals.	d
USA	154 adults
Leung et al., 2012	Qualitative interviews and data analysis and field observations	How do older adults learn to use mobile devices? What challenges do older adults face with mobile phones? How can mobile device design help older adults?	Older adults prefer step-by-step instructions and trial-and-error. They prefer learning alone but find manuals overwhelming and unclear.	d
Canada	131 adults			e
Li & Luximon, 2020	Qualitative and quantitative analysis	What navigation challenges do older adults face on mobile devices? How do different design patterns affect older adults’ navigation? What design changes can improve mobile navigation for older adults?	Older adults found content-based navigation easier than menu- and button-based designs. They faced challenges with icons and button interactions.	d
Hong Kong	51 adults
Mendel et al., 2019	Questionnaire, open questions, grounded theory approach, and Cohen’s Kappa test	How often do surrounding people provide assistance? What kind (helper reaction)? What factors influence helpers’ willingness to provide help (triggers)?	Triggers: Privacy, interruptions, permission security, passwords, new device setup, app use. Helper reactions: Advise, guide, demonstrate, fix. Support: Leverage social networks, diversify interactions, foster learning, address co-location issues, and implement privacy controls.	e
Israel	250 adults
Mendel, 2019	Initial study	How can new methods increase the availability of social support to older adults and enhance learning in tackling privacy and security?	Familiarity with the older relative’s preferences and exposure to the situation influence their willingness to provide assistance, confirming that the potential for social help is currently under-exploited.	e
Israel
Morey et al., 2019	Heuristic evaluations, cognitive walkthroughs, and user testing	How do usability issues in mHealth apps affect older adults’ engagement with health management? What design factors in mHealth apps contribute to difficulties for older adults? And how can the design be improved to meet the needs of older adults?	Older adults struggled with small text and buttons, especially in apps like HFHS. Increasing font size and simplifying interfaces improved their usability and response times.	d
USA	6 adults
Murthy et al., 2021	Semi-structured interviews	Security and privacy practices of older adults in urban India. Unpack the organization of and motivation for collective SP management in this context.	Management is household-wide, with family members acting as tech managers, older adults, and children. Tech managers monitored seniors’ digital activities, while families prioritized collective security over privacy. Outside discussions were rare, confined to cautionary tales, with threat models and behavior control enforced internally.	a
USA	20 adults, Indian			b
				e
Noah et al., 2024	Static analysis and security analysis	Understand the permissions required to use the apps and their danger level.	The 10 apps have 15 distinct permissions, totaling 61 dangerous permissions.	b
USA
Petrovcic et al., 2019	Qualitative and quantitative analysis	How does low mobile proficiency affect older adults? What causes the digital divide in older adults? How can mobile skills improve older adults’ lives?	Low mobile proficiency in older adults limits access to health services and technology.	e
Slovenia	50 adults
Sakhnini & Chattopadhyay, 2022	Semi-structured interviews and systematic and qualitative app review	What fact-checking features exist on smartphones? How do older adults fact-check daily? Do smartphone apps meet older adults’ fact-check needs?	Older adults use Google and trusted sources to check facts. They sometimes share fake news to warn others or fix mistakes, and their interest depends on how relevant and formal the news is.	e
USA	11 adults
Piper et al., 2016	Contextual inquiry/field observations and semi-structured interviews	User experience of technology for older adults in naturalistic settings, or how this demographic sustains use of these devices over time. Challenges presented by these devices as a platform for communication. Nuances of maintaining these devices over time in the context of late-life disability.	Many older adults received tablets as gifts but didn’t continue using them due to inadequate support and age-related disabilities. Even tech-savvy users needed help with setup, leading many to write down passwords and compromise security. Common issues included difficulty seeing icons, managing contacts, and accessing connectivity info. Transportation and cost barriers limited off-site support, while device transport and multiple sessions were often required for proper setup and accessibility configuration.	b
USA	28 adults			d
				e
Quan-Haase & Ho, 2020	Semi-structured and in-depth interviews	What are the types of online privacy concerns of East York older adults? What types of privacy protection strategies are reported by East York older adults? How are privacy concerns and privacy protection strategies interlinked in our sample of East York older adults?	East York older adults’ privacy concerns include security (65%), institutional (25%), and social (15%). Many fear data misuse, hacking, and scams, leading to limited online engagement. Lack of digital skills results in minimal information sharing, avoidance, data deletion, and limited use of protections like passwords and virus checks. Protection strategies vary widely, from none to extensive.	a
Canada	40 adults			b
				e
Ray et al., 2019	Mental models, semi-structured interview, and axial codes	What does privacy mean to older adults? What does privacy in the digital age mean to older adults?	Privacy may need to be balanced with valid societal interventions. Fear of privacy attacks or a lack of interest results in avoiding tech. Perceived vulnerability makes them feel fearful, resigned.	a
UK	20 adults
Ray et al., 2021	Survey from previous years and Likert scale questions	Identifying both overlapping concerns and key differences when viewing older and younger adults in isolation.	Preference for paper records due to mobile app distrust and privacy fears. Unaware of global breaches and worry about sharing data with online entities and unauthorized access. Past privacy breaches and harassment influence their cautious stance. Less concerned about social media than working adults. Privacy views are shaped by personal stories, with a willingness to abandon technology. See greater risks in online banking, e-commerce, and global privacy issues.	a
USA	20 adults			b
Alkhatib et al., 2018	Literature search and content analysis	Aims to gain an initial understanding of the privacy issues that IoT developers are concerned about, by analyzing how privacy is addressed in published studies that describe the development of IoT aged care monitoring solutions.	The development community lacks a deep understanding of privacy, often focusing narrowly on certain aspects while neglecting others. Relying solely on security measures is inadequate. Key issues include data security as a privacy threat, limited data access, confidentiality breaches, surveillance and intrusion, with secondary data use rarely addressed (mentioned in only 3 of 29 papers).	a
Australia				b
				d
Schomakers & Ziefle, 2023	Adaptive Choice-Based Conjoint (ACBC) Questionnaire	How technology acceptance of smart technologies is influenced by privacy concerns and security-related benefits and trade-offs between these partly conflicting factors.	Privacy concerns are often secondary to security benefits in acceptance. While privacy is generally crucial for adopting smart tech, in life-saving situations, security benefits can override privacy worries, depending on individual thresholds. This indicates that other factors may weigh more than privacy in certain contexts.	a
Germany	274 adults
Shimokihara et al., 2024	Cross-sectional survey study	How does mobile device proficiency relate to financial management in older adults? How do subjective cognitive complaints (SCC) affect financial management in older adults? How does mobile device use impact older adults’ daily living?	Older adults with SCC are older, less educated, and more likely to have visual impairments. Their mobile proficiency correlates with daily app usage, mainly for cameras, messaging, and news.	e
Japan	529 adults
Wan et al., 2019	User studies crowdsourcing and learning effect	Does delegation improve older adults’ ability to make security decisions? Does crowdsourcing facilitate security and privacy decision-making? How does the learning effect (acquiring knowledge in the process of delegating tasks to helpers) affect them?	First-time advice is 1.4 times more accurate than solo actions. Participants seek advice more initially, but rely less over time. Crowdsourcing improves accuracy for both advisees and advisors by 1.2 times. Including crowdsourcing info in notifications reduces advice ratios. No accuracy improvements were observed after the study. Proficient advisors gain from delegating security and privacy tasks, and delegation to family members enhances performance.	e
Singapore	50 adults in 3 user studies
Wong et al., 2018	Mixed-methods: Observations, questionnaires, interviews, and verbal protocol	What challenges do older adults face with touchscreen smartphones? How does the lack of keypad phones affect older users? What design changes can improve smartphone usability for older adults?	Older adults enjoy smartphones and basic WhatsApp features but struggle with advanced functions and storage issues. They rely on family or shops for help but want training to be more independent.	d
Singapore	80 adults			e
Young et al., 2014	In-depth interviews	Examines barriers to adoption of home-based health information technology, particularly personal electronic health records, among older adults.	Participants doubted google Health’s security, linking it to public, insecure data, and preferred physician computers for sensitive info. They worried that stored data could be misused, especially pre-existing conditions, but prioritized utility over privacy concerns.	a
USA	35 adults			b
Zhou et al., 2014	Questionnaire, pilot testing, and consistency checks	What factors affect older adults’ adoption of new mobile functions? How do touchscreen devices impact older adults’ mobile usage? What role does social influence play in older adults’ smartphone adoption?	Older adults mainly used core functions like calling and SMS, with some interest in photo-related activities.	d
China	351 adults
Ziefle & Bay, 2005	Qualitative feedback and quantitative analysis	How does phone complexity affect user performance? How do younger and older users perform with different phones? How does phone complexity impact ease of use for different ages?	Younger adults performed better than older adults on more complex phones. However, when older adults used the simpler phone, they performed as well as or even better than younger adults using the complex one.	d
Germany	32 adults
Žvanut & Mihelič, 2024	Semi-structured interviews and open-ended questionnaire	How can older adults be categorized into distinct technology adoption categories based on their attitudes toward domestic social robots and their behavior in using the available technology? Would you feel safe using a social robot? Are you worried about your personal information being exposed or any other potential risks?	Perceived usefulness and ease of use vary by innovation adoption group. Concerns center on malicious data collection, misuse, and mishandling by sensor-equipped devices. Participants fear domestic social robots “eavesdrop” and share sensitive info, risking privacy breaches. These devices are seen as vulnerable to hacking, increasing data privacy risks. Tech-savvy users recognize these risks but may perceive less threat, often exhibiting overconfidence. Overall, uncertainty about data access and handling fosters distrust of these devices.	a
Slovenia	24 adults			b
				d

While direct discussions of security and privacy concerns are limited in some of the included literature, several indirect but relevant themes emerge in our study.

Older Adults’ Perceptions of Mobile Security and Privacy Risks

Older adults often experience anxiety and lack confidence when using mobile devices, which may make them perceive digital environments as risky or overwhelming (Czaja & Lee, 2007). They consistently report apprehension about digital security and privacy, shaped by personal experiences, generational values, and a sense of limited control over their data. While older adults had concerns about leakage of important documents or contacts, misinterpreting buttons, or accidentally doing something they were not supposed to due to the complex technology, these appear not to be the primary concerns from the older adults’ standpoint, as one might have thought. One of the primary concerns was regarding how older adults struggle due to cognitive and physical changes associated with their age. Rather than explicitly referencing data breaches or surveillance, many studies highlight broader concerns, such as fatigue, deteriorating eyesight, and difficulty with digital interaction, which may act as proxies for security apprehensions (Chiu et al., 2016). Multiple studies show that interface designs often overlook these needs (Czaja & Lee, 2007).

Concerns also revolve around institutional threats such as corporate tracking, data resale, or government surveillance, rather than social threats. Many older adults perceive mobile phones as risky due to potential misuse, scams, and unauthorized access, such as social robots or health tools that monitor behavior (Boise et al., 2013; Žvanut & Mihelič, 2024). Some older adults avoid digital participation entirely, while others engage cautiously while using protective strategies, defined sometimes by their past experience (Elueze & Quan-Haase, 2018). Limited use of mobile phones, often restricted to emergency calls or SMS, also reflects minimal engagement with more complex or risky app environments, due to perceived lack of need or fear of misuse (Hassan et al., 2008). Fear and resignation can lead to complete avoidance of digital tools, especially when risks seem abstract or unmanageable (Choudrie et al., 2018). These perceptions intensify among users who have experienced harassment or data breaches (Ray et al., 2021) or when using certain applications (De Barros et al., 2013; Hwangbo et al., 2013) or consumer platforms perceived as insecure for handling personal data. Older adults favored sharing sensitive information through physician-managed systems, citing apprehensions about potential data misuse, while still acknowledging the usefulness of these tools (Young et al., 2014).

Threat Landscape and Contributing Factors

The threat landscape expands on previous concerns, including the susceptibility of older adults to misinformation and scams, with consequences including the risk of financial exploitation, identity theft, or device compromise (e.g., viruses). This is often compounded by digital literacy gaps, behavioral patterns, and age-related changes. For instance, studies show how behavioral vulnerabilities intersect with digital risks when it is seen that older adults share misinformation at a significantly higher rate than younger people (Sakhnini & Chattopadhyay, 2022). Chia et al. (2017) found confusion over app functionality due to language barriers, with 87.3% of participants showing a widespread unawareness of phishing. Other issues, such as age-related cognitive decline, including slower perceptual speed and reduced spatial working memory, diminish their ability to effectively learn and navigate mobile systems, increasing exposure to potential threats (Leung et al., 2012). Usability challenges such as complex interfaces, small text, and dense menus exacerbate these risks by reducing the likelihood that older adults will access or understand protective features (Kurniawan, 2006). Studies show that concerns do not entirely revolve around comprehension or language barriers only, but also around the uncertainty about consequences and system responses, with a lack of understanding of how specific changes will achieve desired outcomes on devices. These challenges illustrate how the intersection of cognitive decline, design flaws, and digital behavior creates a fertile ground for risk.

Uncertainty about system responses is seen even among tech-savvy adults, as they also require assistance during an initial tablet setup test (Piper et al., 2016). Older adults were seen unknowingly increasing risk as they wrote down passwords, unsure of whether the system would ever give up on them (Piper et al., 2016) or were seen using public devices or sharing passwords, unaware of the associated risks (Frik et al., 2019). Additionally, the limited understanding of digital rights and tools prevented many from taking appropriate action, despite being aware of threats (Ellefsen & Chen, 2022). The learning curve is steep, and a lack of support exacerbates vulnerability, especially for older adults living alone.

However, when equipped with proper training or embedded in supportive environments, older adults show improvement. Wan et al. (2019) demonstrated this through crowdsourced advice; users gained confidence and improved their responses to anomalies. Kisekka et al. (2015) similarly reported that risk aversion, paired with IT education, fosters cautious and safe online behavior.

Usability and Effectiveness of Mobile Security Mechanisms

Existing tools such as password managers, fingerprint scanners, or two-factor authentication are rarely designed with older adults in mind. Evidence suggests that while older adults may express interest in fact-checking tools or certain mobile apps, their actual use is limited by complexity and poor usability (Sakhnini & Chattopadhyay, 2022). Tools requiring multi-step processes or abstract digital concepts (e.g., authentication codes or biometric settings) may not be adopted effectively due to cognitive and experiential barriers (Shimokihara et al., 2024). Ellefsen and Chen (2022) noted that participants found password managers overly technical, while Frik et al. (2019) emphasized how physical and cognitive limitations create barriers to use. This lack of usability extends to biometric authentication as well. While Iqbal et al. (2020) found that fingerprint-based login improved perceived security, participants struggled to learn and remember its use. Similarly, Ray et al. (2021) documented that older adults frequently write passwords on paper, which is a sign of both usability failure and a coping strategy due to distrust of digital systems.

Risky Design Features and Opportunities for Improvement

Another recurring theme across the literature is the mismatch between mobile app design and older adults’ physical, cognitive, and experiential needs and how feature designs can worsen the effects of these. Age-related sensory and motor decline makes older users particularly sensitive to design flaws such as small buttons, crowded interfaces, or ambiguous icons. These design issues can lead to errors with potentially serious security consequences, such as inadvertently clicking on malicious links or changing privacy settings unintentionally (Iqbal et al., 2020; Piper et al., 2016). Studies show that struggles with small font sizes, poor visibility of icons, perceived similarity of icons or confusion of icons, and complex interfaces impede safe navigation of digital environments (Iqbal et al., 2020; Piper et al., 2016). Research in comparative usability indicates that content-based navigation generally outperforms menu- and button-based approaches for older users. Participants reported fewer challenges and a clearer understanding when engaging with content-oriented structures, whereas icons and buttons frequently presented recognition and operational difficulties (Li & Luximon, 2020). The cognitive effort required to memorize menu structures or interpret system feedback is often too demanding, especially when information is not displayed clearly (De Barros et al., 2013; Ziefle & Bay, 2005). The lack of clear instructions, small font sizes, and complex navigation further exacerbate exclusion and increase risks (Morey, 2019).

Privacy concerns extend beyond user interface issues to structural risks embedded in app architecture. A static security analysis of online dating apps revealed a concerning number of dangerous permissions (Noah et al., 2024), raising questions about how app ecosystems consider the needs of privacy-sensitive or less tech-savvy users and older adults.

Another layer of complexity emerges when considering household dynamics. In some contexts, particularly among urban families in many countries, older adults’ security behaviors are managed by younger family members who serve as “tech managers” (Murthy et al., 2021) for aging relatives. While this collective model ensures a level of protection, it often deprioritizes individual privacy and autonomy. This finding underscores the need for privacy-enhancing technologies that support rather than override older adults’ agency, and many express a strong desire for better training to use their devices independently (Chen et al., 2013; Melander-Wikman et al., 2008; Wong et al., 2018). Likewise, Kisekka et al. (2015) found that web safety efficacy (WSE) is positively associated with both IT education and confidence in seeking out information on their own. Programs that increase exposure to cybersecurity concepts can help build long-term self-efficacy. Older adults often prefer stepwise instructions and find manuals overwhelming and unclear (Leung et al., 2012). Improving accessibility through larger buttons, simpler language, clearer feedback mechanisms, and a reduction in unnecessary functionality are key strategies for reducing both usability and security.

Educational Interventions, Policy Measures, and Their Effectiveness

Rather than focusing solely on formal training, several studies emphasized the effectiveness of socially embedded learning. Wan et al. (2019) demonstrated that older adults who delegated security decisions to more proficient “advisors” performed significantly better and learned over time through the process of seeking advice. This approach, which involved learning by actively participating in tasks, was echoed in Mendel and Toch (2019), where family members served as informal tech guides, advising, demonstrating, or fixing security-related issues. These findings indicate that privacy interventions may be more effective when leveraging existing social networks rather than relying solely on external guidance.

While interpersonal support is beneficial, many older adults continue to experience social isolation or have limited access to informal support sources. Chia et al. (2017) recommend multi-format educational resources (print, audio, and video) in multiple languages to accommodate users from diverse linguistic and literacy backgrounds. This is particularly relevant for older immigrants or those with lower levels of digital fluency. Community-level interventions also demonstrate significant potential. Kropczynski et al. (2021) proposed enhancing collective efficacy, which is the shared ability of a community to manage privacy and security, through social bonding, technological homophily, and localized training.

The most promising interventions are seen to come in the form of targeted training and support systems. One study detailed the success of an 8-week training program for older adults learning to use touchscreens, which helped reduce anxiety and increase confidence (Chiu et al., 2016). While existing manuals and online help resources are often outdated and not suited to mobile devices or older adults’ learning styles, structured support and methods that allow repetitive and slow-paced learning have proven effective (Leung et al., 2012). There is a clear pattern of what is effective, and these findings highlight the significance of having both formal education and informal learning support.

Discussion

Across all selected studies in this systematic literature review, there was a diversity in methodologies and geographical contexts, but they all had several common key themes that were consistent with others. These themes painted a detailed picture of the various barriers older adults face in dealing with mobile security and privacy.

A dominant theme in the literature is the usability gap between current mobile device designs and the cognitive, sensory, and motor needs of older adults. Research has demonstrated that small buttons, densely packed interfaces, complex menus, and ambiguous icons significantly hinder older adults’ ability to use mobile phones confidently and securely (Gao & Sun, 2015; Hwangbo et al., 2013; Ziefle & Bay, 2005).

This technical friction is compounded by digital literacy gaps where older adults lack the digital literacy needed to navigate evolving mobile environments safely (Chia et al., 2017; Frik et al., 2019). Confusion about phishing, passwords, permissions, and app functionalities often leads to risky behaviors or avoidance altogether. Importantly, older adults often prefer step-by-step, repetitive learning approaches and tend to distrust overly complex manuals or technical jargon (Ibdah et al., 2021; Leung et al., 2012).

Many older adults perceive mobile apps and smart technologies for security as inherently risky. So, in addition to the already prevalent sense of fear experienced by older adults, design flaws not only reduce usability but also increase vulnerability. Studies documented a strong preference for analog alternatives (e.g., paper-based record keeping) due to fear of unauthorized access and data misuse (Quan-Haase & Ho, 2020; Ray et al., 2021). Some even reported full disengagement from platforms such as social media or online banking to avoid potential threats (Elueze & Quan-Haase, 2018). Security features meant to enhance protection may inadvertently introduce complexity. Iqbal et al. (2020) noted that while fingerprint authentication in mobile wallets enhanced perceived security, it scored poorly in terms of learnability. Similarly, password managers were described as complicated and unintuitive, creating a barrier rather than a safeguard (Ellefsen & Chen, 2022). This aligns with the findings of Frik et al. (2019), who found that perceived vulnerability and lack of control lead to avoidance of technology altogether.

The reviewed literature strongly suggests that fear, anxiety, and perceived vulnerability were repeatedly identified as major barriers to not only mobile security technology adoption. Privacy breaches or even rumors of digital scams reinforce mistrust and risk aversion (Quan-Haase & Ho, 2020; Ray et al., 2019). Addressing the usability of security mechanisms, our findings show that security features meant to enhance protection may inadvertently introduce complexity. Security tools such as password managers, fingerprint scanners, two-factor authentication, and facial and voice recognition are rarely optimized for older users. While participants across studies expressed a desire for security, they struggled to understand, configure, or trust these tools (Ellefsen & Chen, 2022; Iqbal et al., 2020). Misuses, such as writing passwords down or avoiding authentication steps, were common, often stemming from poor interface design and unclear system feedback.

Many studies noted that older adults rely heavily on family members or peers for digital support, forming “delegated security ecosystems” (Murthy et al., 2021; Sakaguchi-Tang et al., 2017; Wan et al., 2019). While this model can improve safety, it often undermines user autonomy and places older adults in a passive role. At times, it can also lead to older adults’ privacy being compromised due to a “trusted” delegate becoming non-trustworthy. Still, socially embedded learning, which is done through demonstrations, advice, and shared exploration, has proved effective in building confidence and retention. A wearable device study showed that physiological stress signals, along with increased exposure and familiarity with user preferences, positively influenced the willingness of relatives to assist older adults with mobile security and privacy tasks (Mendel, 2019).

Very few studies addressed policy-level interventions or formal regulatory efforts to safeguard older adults online (Portenhauser et al., 2021). Most educational initiatives were either community-driven or informal. This gap points to an urgent need for more structured support mechanisms and legislation to promote age-inclusive digital safety practices (Ellefsen & Chen, 2022; Hanif & Lallie, 2021). One of the few studies that addressed broader policy gaps was one by Ellefsen and Chen (2022), which highlighted the absence of structured, authoritative guidance on data rights and privacy management from governments or service providers. The call for regulation is further supported by findings from Hanif and Lallie (2021), who showed that trust in applications like mobile banking could be bolstered through user training and transparent security assurances.

Throughout the literature, a consistent theme emerges. Older adults are not indifferent to digital and mobile security technologies; rather, they are underserved by them. Many use mobile devices primarily for basic functions such as calling and texting (Hassan et al., 2008; Zhou et al., 2014). However, many express a willingness to increase their digital engagement if appropriate support, thoughtfully designed interfaces, and trust-building measures are available. The reviewed research highlights that existing challenges are largely due to a combination of interface design limitations, limited digital exposure, age-related cognitive changes, and the lack of targeted interventions or inclusive policies. This gap in design is further compounded by a limited understanding of privacy considerations within the development community. Research indicates that developers of Internet of Things (IoT) solutions for aging-in-place tend to concentrate primarily on data security, often overlooking broader privacy aspects such as confidentiality, data reuse, and surveillance. This raises important questions regarding whether the needs and concerns of older adults are adequately addressed during the system development process (Alkhatib et al., 2018; Tham et al., 2023).

The wide gap in the use of mobile security mechanisms highlights a need for streamlined tools that integrate security seamlessly without requiring advanced configuration. The first category of functions requiring this support involves activities that older adults most commonly perform, such as making calls or sending text messages (Zhou et al., 2014). Proposed solutions to address this issue include the distribution of clear, multilingual guides in multiple formats, namely, video, audio, and printed materials (Chia et al., 2017). The need for education that fosters confidence with security tools is also identified (Hwangbo et al., 2013). However, we found that without user-friendly interfaces and appropriate contextual support, these solutions may still be underutilized.

Future Directions

To better protect the privacy and security of older adults using mobile devices, future research needs to focus on important areas. First, there is a pressing need to include more diverse groups in studies. Many current studies mainly look at healthy, city-dwelling seniors, often leaving minorities, people living in rural areas, or those with memory problems or limited reading skills. Studying these groups over time would give a clearer picture of their different needs and experiences. Additionally, we would need to test security solutions in real-life settings to assess their practicality and sustainability, beyond lab environments. Focusing on evaluating simple interfaces, multilingual instructions, and user-centered designs in everyday settings is essential to ensure sustainability. The need to include older adults in usability tests and in design efforts is critical to address the perceptions that newer security mechanisms are not designed for older adults.

Furthermore, it is crucial to improve collaboration among designers, government officials, and aging experts to develop inclusive policies and user-friendly technologies that ensure accessibility for everyone. When these groups work in isolation, only specific aspects of usability are addressed. Integrating their expertise will promote accessibility across all areas.

Lastly, there is a major need to create clear, practical educational resources for older adults, developed with their input, using diverse formats like print, digital guides, audio, and videos. Offering community-based training will help boost confidence, safety, and independence online for older adults. Such efforts are already underway by various organizations, including the Canadian charity Connected Canadians (Connected Canadians, nd), which provides free, customized one-on-one training and workshops on topics like spotting phishing and other scams. On a global level, international bodies like the International Telecommunication Union (ITU, nd) have recognized this gap, emphasizing the need to make privacy and security awareness a core part of digital skills development for older persons. These programs offer models for practical and policy-level integration of security education.

Limitations

This review focuses on mobile security and privacy challenges faced by older adults but draws from a diverse range of studies with varying scopes, populations, and methods. To address our questions, we included literature covering different cognitive, socioeconomic, and technological backgrounds. However, few studies specifically examine older adults with cognitive decline; for instance, Shimokihara et al. (2024) and Frik et al. (2019) included participants with impairments, but their small sample and qualitative methods limit generalizability.

Many of the studies we reviewed focus on older adults who are generally healthy and interested in technology. Many of these individuals did not grow up with modern digital devices and may not have been considered “digital natives” (Lee, 2007; Leung et al., 2012; Morey et al., 2019). Thus, the barriers identified, such as unfamiliarity with interface designs, challenges with password management, or anxiety related to security features, are examined only within this context. This may reduce the applicability of some findings to future groups of older adults, who are expected to have greater exposure to digital technologies earlier in life.

Similarly, many studies rely on laboratory or urban settings, limiting their direct inference in other real-world mobile device use and security behaviors (Gao & Sun, 2015; Hwangbo et al., 2013). They also often involve homogenous groups, excluding lower-income, institutionalized, or rural older adults (Kurniawan, 2006; Petrovcic et al., 2019). As technology evolves, older adults will face new challenges, and while some usability issues may improve with increased exposure, others, like digital fatigue and navigating fragmented platforms, may intensify (Piper et al., 2016; Wan et al., 2019). Current findings are context-specific and may not predict future experiences. Therefore, ongoing research is essential to understand emerging digital literacy, usage, and risk perceptions among older populations.

Conclusion

This systematic literature review aimed to explore five key research questions related to mobile privacy and security experiences of older adults. In terms of the perceptions of mobile security and privacy risks, we found that older adults primarily worry about institutional privacy threats, such as data breaches and surveillance, over individual device security (Quan-Haase & Elueze, 2018; Žvanut & Mihelič, 2024). This high perceived risk often results in avoidance strategies, where they limit app use or abstain from online services. Notably, security concerns are deeply connected to underlying usability issues and a lack of transparency in system design. However, they may accept privacy trade-offs for critical safety features like health monitoring (Schomakers & Ziefle, 2023).

Our findings also show that older adults face high vulnerability to threats like phishing and social engineering due to lower digital literacy, cognitive changes, and uncertainty regarding mobile system feedback (Chia et al., 2017; Leung et al., 2012). This leads to risky behaviors, such as password reuse, writing down sensitive information, and failing to recognize suspicious app activity (Frik et al., 2019; Piper et al., 2016). These patterns, such as delegating technical tasks or avoiding necessary software updates, are frequently rooted in a lack of confidence and inadequate, non-tailored training, which significantly compounds their exposure to digital security risks.

The usability of existing security tools remains a significant challenge, as they often fail to account for age-related cognitive and physical impairments (Ellefsen & Chen, 2022). Older adults encounter difficulties with configuring password managers, navigating two-factor authentication, and using biometrics due to demanding interfaces (Iqbal et al., 2020). Consequently, even effective security tools are frequently avoided, limiting adoption. This usability gap leads to reliance on insecure practices or complete avoidance of digital security measures, thus increasing overall vulnerability. In addition, our study shows us that poor design features like small touch targets, cluttered interfaces, and vague icons significantly impede safe use (Gao & Sun, 2015; Hwangbo et al., 2013). Security interactions that demand multitasking or rapid responses are particularly challenging. Studies suggest that reducing cognitive load through simplified menus and clear system feedback significantly boosts both usability and safety (Ziefle & Bay, 2005). Addressing these design gaps is crucial, as they directly lead to increased vulnerability in mobile security.

The study identified effective support strategies such as community-based digital literacy programs, family-based mentoring, and multi-format learning resources (Chia et al., 2017; Mendel & Toch, 2019). Social learning, particularly through advice from trusted individuals, is key to building digital confidence (Wan et al., 2019). However, regulatory or institutional guidance remains sparse, with few accessible resources offered by governments or service providers. This necessitates stronger policy frameworks that mandate accessibility standards and fund inclusive digital education initiatives (Ellefsen & Chen, 2022).

Overall, this study shows that older adults are interested in utilizing mobile technologies securely by using the security and privacy mechanisms available on mobile devices. However, their engagement is often impeded by suboptimal design and insufficient support for these mechanisms, as well as unclear policies. These concerns are well-founded and typically stem from practical challenges rather than unfounded apprehensions. Moving forward, future research should explore real-world evaluations of security interventions, incorporate co-design methods with older adults, and examine long-term outcomes of education programs. As technology continues to evolve and the older populations increase in many regions of the world, solutions must emphasize empowerment, usability, and trust to ensure that mobile privacy and security are accessible to all.