Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online 2026-1
Effects of a 16-week high-speed resistance training program on heart rate variability indices in community-dwelling independent older adults: A clinical trial
This study explored the impact of a 16-week high-speed resistance training (HSRT) program on heart rate variability (HRV) indices in independent older adults. The participants were divided into either an intervention group (IG, N = 40) or a control group (CG, N = 39). The IG participated in supervised HSRT sessions three times weekly, comprising 5–6 exercises with 2–3 sets and 6–10 repetitions, which lasted 60–70 min. The CG did not engage in any exercise program. HRV indices, encompassing time, frequency, and non-linear, were recorded over a six-minute period. The ANCOVA results revealed significant improvements favoring the IG for mean RR (η2p = 0.050), systolic blood pressure (η2p = 0.126), and pulse pressure (η2p = 0.157). Additionally, within-group analyses revealed significant increases in stress index (dunb = 0.52), sample entropy (dunb = 0.38), and DFA α1 (dunb = 0.38) exclusively in the CG. This study highlights the significant potential of the HSRT to induce favorable changes in parasympathetic activity and reduce arterial stiffness.
BaevskyR. M.BersenevaA. P. (2008). Methodical recommendations use kardivar system for determination of the stress level and estimation of the body adaptability standards of measurements and physiological interpretation.
2.
BhatiP.MoizJ. A.MenonG. R.HussainM. E. (2019). Does resistance training modulate cardiac autonomic control? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical Autonomic Research: Official Journal of the Clinical Autonomic Research Society, 29(1), 75–103. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10286-018-0558-3
CavinaA. P.SilvaN. M.BiralT. M.LemosL. K.JuniorE. P.PastreC. M.VanderleiL. C.VanderleiF. M. (2021). Effects of 12-week Pilates training program on cardiac autonomic modulation: A randomized controlled clinical trial. Journal of Comparative Effectiveness Research, 10(18), 1363–1372. https://doi.org/10.2217/cer-2021-0195
5.
ChowdharyS.TownendJ. N. (1999). Role of nitric oxide in the regulation of cardiovascular autonomic control. Clinical Science, 97(1), 5–17.
6.
CohenJ. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
7.
CummingG.Calin-JagemanR. (2017). Introduction to the new statistics: Estimation, open science, and beyond (1st ed.). Routledge. https://www.esci.thenewstatistics.com
8.
Duarte MartinsA.Paulo BritoJ.FernandesO.OliveiraR.GonçalvesB.BatalhaN. (2024). Effects of a 16-week high-speed resistance training program on body composition in community-dwelling independent older adults: A clinical trial. Clinical Nutrition ESPEN, 63, 84–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnesp.2024.06.010
9.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.BuchnerA.LangA.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
10.
FigueroaA.KingsleyJ. D.McMillanV.PantonL. B. (2008). Resistance exercise training improves heart rate variability in women with fibromyalgia. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging, 28(1), 49–54. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-097X.2007.00776.x
11.
FragalaM. S.CadoreE. L.DorgoS.IzquierdoM.KraemerW. J.PetersonM. D.RyanE. D. (2019). Resistance training for older adults: Position statement from the national strength and conditioning association. The Journal of Strength & Conditioning Research, 33(8), 2019–2052. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000003230
12.
GellishR. L.GoslinB. R.OlsonR. E.McDonaldA.RussiG. D.MoudgilV. K. (2007). Longitudinal modeling of the relationship between age and maximal heart rate. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 39(5), 822–829. https://doi.org/10.1097/mss.0b013e31803349c6
13.
GerageA.ForjazC. L.NascimentoM.JanuárioR. S.PolitoM.CyrinoE. (2013). Cardiovascular adaptations to resistance training in elderly postmenopausal women. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 34(09), 806–813. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0032-1331185
14.
GrässlerB.ThielmannB.BöckelmannI.HökelmannA. (2021). Effects of different exercise interventions on heart rate variability and cardiovascular health factors in older adults: A systematic review. European Review of Aging and Physical Activity: Official Journal of the European Group for Research into Elderly and Physical Activity, 18(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.1186/s11556-021-00278-6
15.
HeffernanK. S.FahsC. A.ShinsakoK. K.JaeS. Y.FernhallB. (2007). Heart rate recovery and heart rate complexity following resistance exercise training and detraining in young men. American Journal of Physiology - Heart and Circulatory Physiology, 293(5), H3180–H3186. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpheart.00648.2007
16.
HeffernanK. S.JaeS. Y.VieiraV. J.IwamotoG. A.WilundK. R.WoodsJ. A.FernhallB. (2009). C-reactive protein and cardiac vagal activity following resistance exercise training in young African-American and white men. American Journal of Physiology - Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology, 296(4), R1098–R1105. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.90936.2008
17.
HeffernanK. S.SosnoffJ. J.FahsC. A.ShinsakoK. K.JaeS. Y.FernhallB. (2008). Fractal scaling properties of heart rate dynamics following resistance exercise training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 105(1), 109–113. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00150.2008
18.
HoJ.TumkayaT.AryalS.ChoiH.Claridge-ChangA. (2019). Moving beyond P values: Data analysis with estimation graphics. Nature Methods, 16(7), 565–566. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41592-019-0470-3
19.
IyengarN.PengC. K.MorinR.GoldbergerA. L.LipsitzL. A. (1996). Age-related alterations in the fractal scaling of cardiac interbeat interval dynamics. The American journal of physiology, 271(4), R1078–R1084. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.1996.271.4.R1078
20.
KanegusukuH.QueirozA. C. C.SilvaV. J. D.De MelloM. T.UgrinowitschC.ForjazC. L. M. (2015). High-intensity progressive resistance training increases strength with No change in cardiovascular function and autonomic neural regulation in older adults. Journal of Aging and Physical Activity, 23(3), 339–345. https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.2012-0324
21.
KannelW. B. (2000). Elevated systolic blood pressure as a cardiovascular risk factor. The American Journal of Cardiology, 85(2), 251–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-9149(99)00635-9
22.
KarvinenK. H.MurrayN. P.ArastuH.AllisonR. R. (2013). Stress reactivity, health behaviors, and compliance to medical care in breast cancer survivors. Oncology Nursing Forum, 40(2), 149–156. https://doi.org/10.1188/13.ONF.149-156
23.
KingsleyJ. D.FigueroaA. (2016). Acute and training effects of resistance exercise on heart rate variability. Clinical Physiology and Functional Imaging, 36(3), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpf.12223
24.
LeeC. K.LeeJ.-H.HaM.-S. (2022). Comparison of the effects of aerobic versus resistance exercise on the autonomic nervous system in middle-aged women: A randomized controlled study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 9156. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159156
LinL. L.-C.ChenY.-J.LinT.-Y.WengT.-C. (2022). Effects of resistance training intensity on heart rate variability at rest and in response to orthostasis in middle-aged and older adults. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(17), 10579. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710579
27.
LipponenJ. A.TarvainenM. P. (2019). A robust algorithm for heart rate variability time series artefact correction using novel beat classification. Journal of Medical Engineering & Technology, 43(3), 173–181. https://doi.org/10.1080/03091902.2019.1640306
28.
Machado-VidottiH. G.MendesR. G.SimõesR. P.Castello-SimõesV.CataiA. M.Borghi-SilvaA. (2014). Cardiac autonomic responses during upper versus lower limb resistance exercise in healthy elderly men. Brazilian Journal of Physical Therapy, 18(1), 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1413-35552012005000140
29.
MannB. (2016). Developing explosive athletes: Use of velocity based training in athletes. Michigan: Ultimate Athlete Concepts.
MarkA. L. (1995). Sympathetic dysregulation in heart failure: Mechanisms and therapy. Clinical Cardiology, 18(3 Suppl I), I3–I8. https://doi.org/10.1002/clc.4960181303
32.
Moya-RamonM.Mateo-MarchM.Peña-GonzálezI.ZabalaM.JavaloyesA. (2022). Validity and reliability of different smartphones applications to measure HRV during short and ultra-short measurements in elite athletes. Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine, 217, 106696. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmpb.2022.106696
33.
OkadaY.GalbreathM. M.ShibataS.JarvisS. S.VanGundyT. B.MeierR. L.VongpatanasinW.LevineB. D.FuQ. (2012). Relationship between sympathetic baroreflex sensitivity and arterial stiffness in elderly men and women. Hypertension, 59(1), 98–104. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.111.176560
34.
PaluchA. E.BoyerW. R.FranklinB. A.LadduD.LobeloF.LeeD.McDermottM. M.SwiftD. L.WebelA. R.LaneA.on behalf the American Heart Association Council on Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health; Council on Arteriosclerosis, Thrombosis and Vascular Biology; Council on Clinical Cardiology; Council on Cardiovascular and Stroke Nursing; Council on Epidemiology and Prevention; and Council on Peripheral Vascular Disease. (2024). Resistance exercise training in individuals with and without cardiovascular disease: 2023 update: A scientific statement from the American heart association. Circulation, 149(3), e217–e231. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001189
35.
RosenwinkelE. T.BloomfieldD. M.ArwadyM. A.GoldsmithR. L. (2001). Exercise and autonomic function in health and cardiovascular disease. Cardiology Clinics, 19(3), 369–387. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0733-8651(05)70223-x
SachaJ. (2014). Interaction between heart rate and heart rate variability. Annals of Noninvasive Electrocardiology: The Official Journal of the International Society for Holter and Noninvasive Electrocardiology, Inc, 19(3), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1111/anec.12148
38.
SayersS. P.GibsonK.Bryan MannJ. (2016). Improvement in functional performance with high-speed power training in older adults is optimized in those with the highest training velocity. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 116(11–12), 2327–2336. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-016-3484-x
39.
ShafferF.GinsbergJ. P. (2017). An overview of heart rate variability metrics and norms. Frontiers in Public Health, 5, 258. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00258
40.
SimpsonE. E.MaylorE. A.McConvilleC.Stewart-KnoxB.MeunierN.Andriollo-SanchezM.PolitoA.IntorreF.McCormackJ. M.CoudrayC. (2014). Mood and cognition in healthy older European adults: The Zenith study. BMC Psychology, 2(1), 11. https://doi.org/10.1186/2050-7283-2-11
41.
SpeerK. E.SempleS.NaumovskiN.McKuneA. J. (2020). Measuring heart rate variability using commercially available devices in healthy children: A validity and reliability study. European Journal of Investigation in Health, Psychology and Education, 10(1), 390–404. https://doi.org/10.3390/ejihpe10010029
SuX.HeJ.CuiJ.LiH.MenJ. (2022). The effects of aerobic exercise combined with resistance training on inflammatory factors and heart rate variability in middle‐aged and elderly women with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Annals of Noninvasive Electrocardiology: The Official Journal of the International Society for Holter and Noninvasive Electrocardiology, Inc, 27(6), Article e12996. https://doi.org/10.1111/anec.12996
44.
Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology. (1996). Heart rate variability: standards of measurement, physiological interpretation, and clinical use.Circulation, 93(5), 1043–1065. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.CIR.93.5.1043
45.
ThayerJ. F.YamamotoS. S.BrosschotJ. F. (2010). The relationship of autonomic imbalance, heart rate variability and cardiovascular disease risk factors. International Journal of Cardiology, 141(2), 122–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcard.2009.09.543
46.
VallejoF. T.ChienL. T.Hébert-LosierK.BeavenM. (2020). Validity and reliability of the BeastTM sensor to measure movement velocity during the back squat exercise. The Journal of Sport and Exercise Science, 4(2), 100–105. https://doi.org/10.36905/jses.2020.02.05
47.
van BovenA. J.JukemaJ. W.HaaksmaJ.ZwindermanA. H.CrijnsH. J.LieK. I. (1998). Depressed heart rate variability is associated with events in patients with stable coronary artery disease and preserved left ventricular function. American Heart Journal, 135(4), 571–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0002-8703(98)70269-8
48.
VieiraI. P.LoboP. C. B.FisherJ.Ramirez-CampiloR.PimentelG. D.GentilP. (2022). Effects of high-speed versus traditional resistance training in older adults. Sports health, 14(2), 283–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/19417381211015211
49.
WanderleyF. A. C.MoreiraA.SokhatskaO.PalmaresC.MoreiraP.SandercockG.OliveiraJ.CarvalhoJ. (2013). Differential responses of adiposity, inflammation and autonomic function to aerobic versus resistance training in older adults. Experimental Gerontology, 48(3), 326–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exger.2013.01.002
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
