The present study examined the interrelationships between benevolent ageism, metamemory, self-compassion, and environmental mastery. By assessing older adults’ perceptions of overaccommodative behaviors, we found greater perceptions of benevolent ageist experiences, or well-intended patronage, related to lower levels of environmental mastery, effectively managing one’s own affairs, in a sample of 202 older adults. Additionally, this relationship is mediated by metamemory, or self-perceptions of memory abilities, as greater perceptions of benevolent ageism experiences indirectly predicted less environmental mastery through having decreased metamemory confidence. Finally, this mediated relationship is moderated by self-compassion, or kindness and acceptance towards oneself, in that self-compassion interacts with benevolent ageism to predict metamemory, which in turn predicts environmental mastery. Self-compassion is part of a growing literature on intervening variables that helping professionals can teach older adults to mitigate the relationship between ageism and their overall well-being alongside efforts to diminish the pervasiveness of ageism in society.
AdamsC. E.LearyM. R. (2007). Promoting self–compassionate attitudes toward eating among restrictive and guilty eaters. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 26(10), 1120–1144. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2007.26.10.1120
2.
AllenA. B.GoldwasserE. R.LearyM. R. (2012). Self-compassion and well-being among older adults. Self and Identity: The Journal of the International Society for Self and Identity, 11(4), 428–453. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2011.595082
BaltesM. M.WahlH. W. (1996). Patterns of communication in old age: The dependence-support and independence-ignore script. Health Communication, 8(3), 217–231. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327027hc0803_3
5.
BurnesD.SheppardC.HendersonC. R.JrWasselM.CopeR.BarberC.PillemerK. (2019). Interventions to reduce ageism against older adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 109(8), e1–e9. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2019.305123
CaryL. A.ChasteenA. L.RemediosJ. (2017). The ambivalent ageism scale: Developing and validating a scale to measure benevolent and hostile ageism. The Gerontologist, 57(2), e27–e36. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/gnw118
8.
ChasteenA. L.CaryL. A. (2015). Age stereotypes and age stigma: Connections to research on subjective aging. Annual Review of Gerontology and Geriatrics, 35(1), 99–119. http://dx.doi.org/10.1891/0198-8794.35.99
9.
ChasteenA. L.Pichora-FullerM. K.DupuisK.SmithS.SinghG. (2015). Do negative views of aging influence memory and auditory performance through self-perceived abilities?Psychology and Aging, 30(4), 881–893. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039723.
10.
CuddyA. J. C.FiskeS. T.GlickP. (2007). The BIAS map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(4), 631–648. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.4.631
11.
CuddyA. J. C.NortonM. I.FiskeS. T. (2005). This old stereotype: The pervasiveness and persistence of the elderly stereotype. Journal of Social Issues, 61(2), 267–285. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.2005.00405.x
12.
CutlerS. J.GramsA. E. (1988). Correlates of self-reported everyday memory problems. Journal of Gerontology, 43(3), S82–S90. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronj/43.3.S82
13.
DardenneB.DumontM.BollierT. (2007). Insidious dangers of benevolent sexism: Consequences for women's performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 93(5), 764–779. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.93.5.764
14.
DumontM.SarletM.DardenneB. (2010). Be too kind to a woman, she’ll feel incompetent: Benevolent sexism shifts self-construal and autobiographical memories toward incompetence. Sex Roles, 62(7–8), 545–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9582-4
15.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.BuchnerA.LangA. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G* Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
16.
FaulF.ErdfelderE.LangA. G.BuchnerA. (2007). G* power 3: A flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods, 39(2), 175–191. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193146
17.
FiskeS. T.CuddyA. J.C.GlickP.XuJ. (2002). A model of (often mixed) stereotype content: Competence and warmth respectively follow from perceived status and competition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 82(6), 878–902. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.878
18.
FreyK. T.BiscontiT. L. (2023). Older, entitled, and extremely out-of-touch”: Does “ok, boomer” signify the emergence of a new older adult stereotype?Journal of Applied Gerontology. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/07334648231154044
19.
GilesH.MulacA.BradacJ. J.JohnsonP. (1987). Speech accommodation theory: The first decade and beyond. In McLaughlinM. L. (Ed.), Communication yearbook. 10, pp. 13–48. Sage. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.1987.11678638
20.
HammondM. D.OverallN. C. (2017). Dynamics within intimate relationships and the causes, consequences, and functions of sexist attitudes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(2), 120–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721416686213
21.
HayesA. F. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
22.
HessT. M.AumanC.ColcombeS. J.RahhalT. A. (2003). The impact of stereotype threat on age differences in memory performance. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58(1), P3–P11. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/58.1.P3
23.
HomanK. J. (2016). Self-compassion and psychological well-being in older adults. Journal of Adult Development, 23(2), 111–119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10804-016-9227-8
24.
KnightT.DavisonT. E.McCabeM. P.MellorD. (2011). Environmental mastery and depression in older adults in residential care. Ageing and Society, 31(5), 870–884. https://doi:10.1017/S0144686X1000142X
25.
Kotter-GrühnD.NeupertS. D.StephanY. (2015). Feeling old today? Daily health, stressors, and affect explain day-to-day variability in subjective age. Psychology & Health, 30(12), 1470–1485. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2015.1061130
LevyB. R.Leifheit-LimsonE. (2009). The stereotype-matching effect: Greater influence on functioning when age stereotypes correspond to outcomes. Psychology and Aging, 24(1), 230–233. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014563
29.
LevyB. R.PilverC. E.PietrzakR. H. (2014). Lower prevalence of psychiatric conditions when negative age stereotypes are resisted. Social Science & Medicine, 119, 170–174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.06.046
30.
LevyB. R.SladeM. D.KaslS. V. (2002a). Longitudinal benefit of positive self-perceptions of aging on functional health. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(5), 409–417. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.5.P409
31.
LevyB. R.SladeM. D.KunkelS. R.KaslS. V. (2002b). Longevity increased by positive self-perceptions of aging. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83(2), 261–270. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.83.2.261
32.
LevyB. R.ZondermanA. B.SladeM. D.FerrucciL. (2012). Memory shaped by age stereotypes over time. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 67(4), 432–436. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbr120
33.
LevyS. R.MacdonaldJ. L. (2016). Progress on understanding ageism. Journal of Social Issues, 72(1), 5–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12153
34.
LyonsA.AlbaB.HeywoodW.FilebornB.MinichielloV.BarrettC.HinchliffS.MaltaS.DowB. (2018). Experiences of ageism and the mental health of older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 22(11), 1456–1464. https://doi.org/10.1080/13607863.2017.1364347
35.
McGeeJ.BarkerM. (1982). Deference and dominance in old age: An exploration in social theory. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 15(4), 247–262. https://doi.org/10.2190/82NR-H8V2-6LNH-LF4N
36.
MehrotraC. M.WagnerL. S. (2009). Aging and diversity: An active learning experience (2nd ed.). Routledge/Taylor & Francis Group.
37.
MontpetitM. A.TiberioS. S. (2016). Probing resilience: Daily environmental mastery, self-esteem, and stress appraisal. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 83(4), 311–332. https://doi.org/10.1177/0091415016655162
38.
NeffK. D. (2003). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2(3), 223–250. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298860309027
39.
NeffK. D.GermerC. K. (2013). A pilot study and randomized controlled trial of the mindful self-compassion program. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(1), 28–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.21923
40.
NeubauerA. B.SchillingO. K.WahlH. W. (2017). What do we need at the end of life? Competence, but not autonomy, predicts intraindividual fluctuations in subjective well-being in very old age. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 72(3), 425–435. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbv052
41.
NorthM. S.FiskeS. T. (2013). Act your (old) age: Prescriptive, ageist biases over succession, consumption, and identity. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, 39(6), 720–734. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167213480043
42.
OngA. D.BergemanC. S. (2004). Resilience and adaptation to stress in later life: Empirical perspectives and conceptual implications. Ageing International, 29(3), 219–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12126-996-1000-z
43.
ParentM. C. (2013). Handling item-level missing data: Simpler is just as good. The Counseling Psychologist, 41(4), 568–600. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000012445176
44.
PudrovskaT.SchiemanS.PearlinL. I.NguyenK. (2005). The sense of mastery as a mediator and moderator in the association between economic hardship and health in late life. Journal of Aging and Health, 17(5), 634–660. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898264305279874
45.
RodinJ. (1986). Health, control, and aging. In BaltesM.M.BaltesP.B. (Eds.), The psychology of control and aging (pp. 139–165). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
46.
RyanE. B.GilesH.BartolucciG.HenwoodK. (1986). Psycholinguistic and social psychological components of communication by and with the elderly. Language & Communication, 6(1–2), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/0271-5309(86)90002-9
47.
RyanE. B.MacleanM.OrangeJ. B. (1994). Inappropriate accommodation in communication to elders: Inferences about nonverbal correlates. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 39(4), 273–291. https://doi.org/10.2190/NPWX-3GDV-NG4B-KCA3
48.
RyffC. D.KeyesC. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69(4), 719–727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719
49.
SublettJ. F.ValeM. T.BiscontiT. L. (2022). Expanding benevolent ageism: Replicating attitudes of overaccommodation to older men. Experimental Aging Research, 48(3), 220–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/0361073X.2021.1968666
50.
TabachnickB. G.FidellL. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Pearson.
51.
TroyerA. K.RichJ. B. (2002). Psychometric properties of a new metamemory questionnaire for older adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(1), P19–P27. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/57.1.P19
52.
ValeM. T.BiscontiT. L.SublettJ. F. (2020). Benevolent ageism: Attitudes of overaccommodative behavior toward older women. The Journal of Social Psychology, 160(5), 548–558. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224545.2019.1695567
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
