Aging literature often links social ties to lower depression for older adults; however, research shows inconsistent findings by race and gender. Drawing from an “intersectionality” framework, this article explores whether the relationship between social ties and depression is moderated by race and gender for a nationally representative sample of diverse, community-dwelling older adults (aged 60 and older). Analysis of the most recent wave of the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) indicates that White men, Black men, White women, and Black women differ in terms of the relationship between social ties and depression. Main findings include (a) the overwhelming benefit of marriage and partnership, (b) pronounced differences between Black women’s and White women’s friend and kin ties, and (c) the potential vulnerability of older Black men. Findings highlight the importance of catering community-based elder support toward diverse aging populations. Potential community-based care solutions are discussed.
Ajrouch, K.J., Blandon, A.Y., & Antonucci, T.C. (2005). Social networks among men and women: The effects of age and socioeconomic status. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60B, 311-317.
2.
Antonucci, T.C., & Akiyama, H. ( 1987). An examination of sex differences in social support among older men and women. Sex Roles, 17, 737-749.
3.
Antonucci, T.C., Akiyama, H., & Lansford, J.E. (1998). Negative effects of close social relationships. Family Relations, 47, 379-384.
4.
Armstrong, M.J. ( 2000). Older women’s organization of friendship support networks: An African American-WhiteAmerican comparison. Journal of Women and Aging, 12(1/2), 93-108.
5.
Baker, L.A., Cahalin, L.P., Gerst, K., & Burr, J.A. ( 2005). Productive activities and subjective well-being among older adults: The influence of number of activities and time commitment. Social Indicators Research, 73, 431-458.
6.
Balaswamy, S., & Richardson, V.E. (2001). The cumulative effects of life event, personal and social resources on subjective well-being of elderly widowers. International Journal of Aging and Human Development , 53, 311-327.
7.
Ball, R.E. ( 1983). Marital status, household structure, and life satisfaction of black women. Social Problems, 30, 400-409.
8.
Ball, R.E., & Robbins, L. ( 1986). Marital status and life satisfaction among black Americans . Journal of Marriage and the Family, 48, 389-394.
9.
Benjamins, M.R. ( 2005). Social determinants of preventive service utilization: How religion influences the use of cholesterol screening in older adults. Research on Aging, 27, 475-497.
10.
Berkman, L., Glass, T., Brissette, T., & Seeman, T.E. ( 2000). From social integration to health: Durkheim in the new millennium. Social Science and Medicine, 51, 843-857.
11.
Bothell, W.L., Fischer, J., & Hayashida, C. ( 1999). Social support and depression among low income elderly . Journal of Housing for the Elderly, 13(1/2), 51-63.
12.
Bourque, P., Pushkar, D., Bonneville, L., & Beland, F. ( 2004). Contextual effects on life satisfaction of older men and women. Canadian Journal on Aging, 24(1), 31-44.
13.
Brown, S.L., Bulanda, J.R., & Lee, G.R. ( 2005). The significance of nonmarital cohabitation: Marital status and mental health benefits among middle-aged and older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 60B, 21-29.
14.
Brown, D.R., & Gary, L.E. ( 1985). Social support network differentials among married and nonmarried black females. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9, 229-241.
15.
Brown, D.L., & Glasgow, N. ( 2008). Rural retirement migration. New York : Springer.
16.
Calasanti, T.M. ( 1996). Incorporating diversity: Meaning, levels of research, and implications of theory. The Gerontologist, 36, 147-156.
17.
Callaghan, C.M., & Wolinsky, F.D. (1994). The effect of gender and race on the measurement properties of the CES-D in older adults. Medical Care, 32, 341-356.
18.
Carstensen, L.L., Isaacowitz, D., & Charles, S.T. ( 1999). Taking time seriously: A theory of socioemotional selectivity . American Psychologist, 54, 165-181.
19.
Choi, N.G., Burr, J.A., Mutchler, J.E., & Caro, F.G. ( 2007). Formal and informal volunteer activity and spousal caregiving among older adults. Research on Aging, 29, 99-124.
20.
Cobb, S. ( 1976). Social support as a moderator of life stress. Psychosomatic Medicine, 38, 300-314.
21.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S.G., & Aiken, L.S. ( 2003). Applied multiple regression/ correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences (3rd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
22.
Collins, P.H. ( 1990). Black feminist thought: Knowledge, consciousness, and the politics of empowerment. New York: Routledge.
23.
Connidis, I.A. ( 2001). Family ties and aging. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
24.
Connidis, I.A., & McMullin, J.A. (1993). To have or have not: Parent status and the subjective well-being of older men and women. The Gerontologist, 33, 630-636.
25.
Conway-Turner, K. ( 1999). Older women of color: A feminist exploration of the intersections of personal, familial and community life. Journal of Women and Aging, 11, 115-130.
26.
Cornwell, B., Laumann, E.O., & Schumm, L.P. ( 2008). The social connectedness of older adults: A national profile. American Sociological Review, 73, 185-203.
27.
Dannefer, D. ( 2003). Cumulative advantage/disadvantage and the life course: Cross-fertilizing age and social science theory. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 58B, 327-337.
28.
Dean, A., Kolody, B., & Wood, P. ( 1990). Effects of social support from various sources on depression in elderly persons. Journal of Health and Social Behavior , 31, 148-161.
29.
Dilworth-Anderson, P., & Marshall, S. ( 1996). Social support in its cultural context. In G. R. Pierce, B. R. Sarason , & I. G. Sarason (Eds.), Handbook of social support and the family (pp. 141-172). New York: Plenum.
30.
Dilworth-Anderson, P., Williams, I.C., & Gibson, B.E. ( 2002). Issues of race, ethnicity, and culture in caregiving research: A 20-year review (1980-2000). The Gerontologist , 42, 237-272.
31.
Dressel, P., Minkler, M., & Yen, I. ( 1997). Gender, race, class, and aging: Advances and opportunities . International Journal of Health Services, 27, 579-600.
32.
Ellison, C.G. ( 1990). Family ties, friendships, and subjective well-being among black Americans. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 52, 298-310.
33.
Fast, J., Keating, N., Otfinowski, P., & Derksen, L. ( 2004). Characteristics of family/ friend care networks of frail seniors. Canadian Journal on Aging, 23(1), 5-19.
34.
Ferlander, S. ( 2007). The importance of different forms of social capital for health. Acta Sociologica, 50, 115-128.
35.
Ferraro, K.F., Shippee, T.P., & Schafer, M.H. ( 2009). Cumulative inequality theory for research in aging and the life course. In V. L. Bengtson, D. Gans, N. M. Putney , & M. Silverstein (Eds.), Handbook of theories of aging (pp. 413-433). New York: Springer.
36.
Fiori, K.L., Antonucci, T.C., & Cortina, K.S. ( 2006). Social network typologies and mental health among older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61B, 25-32.
37.
Foley, K.L., Reed, P.S., Mutran, E.J., & DeVellis, R.F. (2002). Measurement adequacy of the CES-D among a sample of older African-Americans. Psychiatry Research, 109(1), 61-69.
38.
Fultz, N.H., Jenkins, K.R., stbye, T., Taylor, D.H., Jr., Kabeto, M.U., & Langa, K.M. ( 2005). The impact of own and spouse’s urinary incontinence on depressive symptoms. Social Science and Medicine, 60, 2537-2548.
39.
Gallo, W.T., Bradley, E.H., Dubin, J.A., Jones, R.N., Falba, T.A., Teng, H-M., et al. (2006). The persistence of depressive symptoms in older workers who experience involuntary job loss: Results from the Health and Retirement Survey. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 61B, 221-228.
40.
Geronimus, A.T. ( 2001). Understanding and eliminating racial inequalities in women’s health in the United States: The role of the weathering conceptual framework. Journal of the American Medical Women’s Association , 56, 133-136.
41.
Haines, V.A., & Hurlbert, J.S. (1992). Network range and health . Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 254-266.
42.
Hauser, R.M., & Willis, R.J. ( 2005). Survey design and methodology in the Health and Retirement Study and the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study. In L. J. Waite (Ed.), Aging, health and public policy: Demographic and economic perspectives (pp. 209-235). New York: Population Council.
43.
Health and Retirement Study (2006). HRS Data File-Public Use Dataset (Produced and distributed by the University of Michigan with funding from the National Institute on Aging [Grant Number NIA U01AG009740]). Ann Arbor, MI. Retrieved March 10, 2008, from http://hrsonline.isr.umich.edu/
44.
Hinze, S.W., Andersson, T., & Gran, B. ( 2009, April). The power of intersectionality: The influence of race, class and gender on social support and the physical and mental health of older adults. Presented at the Southern Sociological Society Conference, New Orleans, LA.
45.
House, J.S., Umberson, D., & Landis, K.R. ( 1988). Structures and processes of social support. Annual Review of Sociology, 14, 293-318.
46.
Israel, B.A., & Antonucci, T.C. (1987). Social network characteristics and psychological well-being: A replication and extension. Health Education Quarterly, 14, 461-481.
47.
Jang, Y., Borenstein, A.R., Chiriboga, D.A., & Mortimer, J.A. (2005). Depressive symptoms among African American and white older adults. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60B, 313-319.
48.
Jang, Y., Borenstein, A.R., Chiriboga, D.A., Phillips, K., & Morimer, J.A. ( 2006). Religiosity, adherence to traditional culture, and psychological well-being among AfricanAmerican elders. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 25, 343-355.
49.
Jang, Y., Chiriboga, D.A., Herrera, J.R., & Schonfeld, L. (in press). Correlates of depressive symptoms among Hispanic older adults living in public housing. Journal of Applied Gerontology.
50.
Kahn, R., & Antonucci, T.C. (1980). Convoys over the life course: Attachment, roles, and social support. In P. B. Baltes & O. C. Brim (Eds.), Life-span, development, and behavior (pp. 254-283). New York: Academic Press.
51.
Kohout, F.J., Berkman, L.F., Evans, D.A., & Cornoni-Huntley, J. (1993). Two shorter forms of the CES-D depression symptoms index. Journal of Aging and Health, 5, 179-193.
52.
Laditka, S.B., Laditka, J.N., & Fisher Drake, B. (2006). Home and community-based service use among older African American, Hispanic, and non-Hispanic white women and men. Home Health Care Services Quarterly, 25, 129-153.
53.
Lang, F.R., & Baltes, M.M. ( 1997). Being with people and being alone in later life: Costs and benefits for everyday functioning. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 21, 729-746.
54.
Lee, G.R., & Ellithorpe, E. (1982). Intergenerational exchange and subjective well-being among the elderly. Journal of Marriage and Family, 44, 217-224.
55.
Lin, N., Dean, A., & Ensel, W. ( 1986). Social support, live events, and depression. New York: Academic Press.
56.
Lincoln, K.D., Chatters, L.M., & Taylor, R.J. ( 2003). Psychological distress among black and white Americans: Differential effects of social support, negative interaction, and personal control. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 44, 390-407.
57.
Litwin, H., & Shiovitz-Ezra, S. (2006). The association between activity and wellbeing in later life: What really matters? Ageing and Society, 26, 225-242.
58.
Locher, J.L., Ritchie, C.S., Roth, D.L., Baker, P.S., Bodner, E.V., & Allman, R.M. ( 2005). Social isolation, support, and capital and nutritional risk in an older sample: Ethnic and gender differences. Social Science and Medicine, 60, 747-761.
59.
Luo, Y., & Waite, L.J. ( 2005). The impact of childhood and adult SES on physical, mental, and cognitive well-being in later life. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60B, 93-101.
60.
McCall, L. ( 2005). The complexity of intersectionality. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 30, 1771-1800.
61.
McMullin, J.A., & Cairney, J. ( 2004). Self-esteem and the intersection of age, class, and gender . Journal of Aging Studies, 18(1), 75-90.
62.
McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Brashears, M.E. (2006). Social isolation in America: Changes in core discussion networks over two decades. American Sociological Review, 71, 353-375.
63.
Mills, T., & Henretta, J.C. (2001). Racial, ethnic, and sociodemographic differences in the level of psychosocial distress among older Americans. Research on Aging, 23, 131-152.
64.
Mitchell, J., Mathews, H.F., & Yesavage, J.A. (1993). A multidimensional examination of depression among the elderly. Research on Aging, 15, 198-219.
65.
Mirowsky, J. ( 1996). Age and the gender gap in depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 37, 362-380.
66.
Moren-Cross, J., & Lin, N. ( 2006). Social networks, mental health, and the life course. In R. K. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of mental health and aging. New York: Elsevier North-Holland.
67.
Moriarty, J., & Butt, J. ( 2004). Inequalities in quality of life among older people from different ethnic groups. Ageing and Society, 24, 729-753.
68.
Mui, A.C. ( 1993). Self-reported depressive symptoms among black and Hispanic frail elders: A sociocultural perspective. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 12, 170-187.
69.
Nezlek, J.B., Richardson, D.S., Green, L.R., & Schatten-Jones, E.C. (2002). Psychological well-being and day-to-day social interaction among older adults. Personal Relationships, 9(1), 57-71.
70.
Nguyen, H.T., Kitner-Triolo, M., Evans, M.K., & Zonderman, A.B. (2004). Factorial invariance of the CES-D in low socioeconomic status African Americans compared with a nationally representative sample. Psychiatry Research, 126, 177-187.
71.
Okabayashi, H., Liang, J., Akiyama, H., & Sugisawa, H. ( 2004). Mental health among older adults in Japan: Do sources of social support and negative interaction make a difference? Social Science and Medicine, 59, 2259-2270.
72.
O’Rand, A. ( 1996). The cumulative stratification of the life course. In R. H. Binstock & L. K. George (Eds.), Handbook of aging and the social sciences . New York: Academic Press.
73.
Park, N.S. ( 2009). The relationship of social engagement to psychological well-being of older adults in assisted living facilities. Journal of Applied Gerontology, 28, 461-481.
74.
Peek, M.K., Coward, R.T., & Peek, C.W. ( 2000). Race, aging, and care: Can differences in family and household structure account for race variations in informal care?Research on Aging, 22, 117-142.
75.
Pinquart, M., & Sörensen, S. (2001). Gender differences in self-concept and psychological well-being in old age: A meta analysis. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences , 56B, 195-213.
76.
Radloff, L.S. ( 1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement , 1, 385-401.
77.
Rand Hrs Data (Version H.). (February 2008). Produced by the RAND Center for the Study of Aging, with funding from the National Institute on Aging and theSocial Security Administration. Santa Monica, CA.
78.
Roff, L.L., Burgio, L.D., Gitlin, L., Nichols, L., Chaplin, W., & Hardin, J.M. ( 2004). Positive aspects of Alzheimer’s caregiving: The role of race. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 59B, 185-190.
79.
Ross, C.E., & Mirowsky, J. ( 2008). Age and the balance of emotions. Social Science and Medicine, 66, 2391-2400.
80.
Roxburgh, S.(2009) Untangling inequalities: Gender, race, and socioeconomic differences in depression. Sociological Forum, 24, 357-381.
81.
Sarkisian, N., & Gerstel, N. ( 2004). Kin support among blacks and whites: Race and family organization. American Sociological Review, 69, 812-837.
82.
Scott, A., & Wenger, G.C. ( 1995). Gender and social support networks in later life. In S. Arber & J. Ginn (Eds.), Connecting gender and ageing: A sociological approach. Bristol, PA: Open University Press.
83.
Siegel, M.J., Bradley, E.H., Gallo, W.T., & Kasl, S.V. ( 2004). The effect of spousal mental and physical health on husbands’ and wives’ depressive symptoms, among older adults: Longitudinal evidence from the Health and Retirement Survey. Journal of Aging and Health, 16, 398-425.
84.
Skarupski, K.A., Mendes de Leon, C.F., Bienias, J.L., Barnes, L.L., Everson-Rose, S.A., Wilson, R.S., et al. (2005). Black-white differences in depressive symptoms among older adults over time. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60B, 136-142.
85.
Sobal, J., & Rauschenbach, B.S. (2003). Gender, marital status, and body weight in older U.S. adults. Gender Issues, 21(3), 75-94.
86.
Spakes, P.R. ( 1979). Family, friendship and community interaction as related to life satisfaction of the elderly. Journal of Gerontological Social Work, 1, 279-293.
87.
Sudano, J., & Baker, D.W. ( 2006). Explaining US racial/ethnic disparities in health declines and mortality in late middle age: The roles of socioeconomic status, health behaviors, and health insurance. Social Science and Medicine , 62, 909-922.
88.
Sudha, S., Mutran, E.J., Williams, I.C., & Suchindran, C. (2006). Childbearing history and self-reported well-being in later life: Contrasting older African American and white women. Research on Aging, 28, 599-621.
89.
Turnbull, J., & Mui, A. ( 1995). Mental health status and needs of black and white elderly: Differences in depression. In D. K. Padgett (Ed.), Handbook on ethnicity, aging, and mental health (pp. 73-98). Westport, CT: Greenwood.
90.
Turner, H.A. ( 1994). Gender and social support: Taking the bad with the good ? Sex Roles: A Journal of Research, 30, 521-542.
91.
Van Tilburg, T.G. ( 1995). Delineation of the social network and differences in network size. In C. P. M. Knipscheer, J. De Jong Gierveld, T. G. Van Tilburg, & P. A. Dykstra (Eds.), Living arrangements and social networks of older adults (pp. 83-96). Amsterdam : VU University Press.
92.
Waite, L.J. ( 1995). Does marriage matter? Demography, 32, 483-508.
93.
Wallace, D.C., Fields, B.L., Witucki, J., Boland, C., & Tuck, I. ( 1999). Use of home and community-based services by elderly black and white females. Journal of Women and Aging, 11(4), 5-20.
94.
Wallsten, S.M., Tweed, D.L., Blazer, D.G., & George, L.K. ( 1999). Disability and depressive symptoms in the elderly: The effects of instrumental support and its subjective appraisal. International Journal of Aging and Human Development, 48, 145-159.
95.
Wenger, G.C., Davies, R., & Shahtahmasebi, S. (1995). Morale in old Age: Refining the model. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 10, 933-943.
96.
Zhang, Z. ( 2006). Marital history and the burden of cardiovascular disease in midlife. The Gerontologist, 46, 266-270.
97.
Zhang, Z., & Hayward, M.D. ( 2001). Childlessness and the psychological well-being of older persons. Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 56B, 311-320.
98.
Zhang, Z., & Hayward, M.D. ( 2006). Gender, the marital life course, and cardiovascular disease in late midlife. Journal of Marriage and Family, 68, 639-657.
