This study has as objective to develop an epoxy-based powder paint based on a standard commercial powder paint formulation with the addition of different contents (2, 4, and 8% wt.) and types of montmorillonites (MMT-Na+, OMMT-15A, OMMT-30B), modified with cerium IV nitrate and ammonia. The incorporation of modified clays (MMT-NaCe, OMMT-15ACe, and OMMT-30BCe) on epoxy-based powder paints was conducted in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder in the molten state to produce powder paints where physical, chemical, morphological, structural, and anticorrosive properties were evaluated. The addition of various clay types and contents only produced nanocomposites with a structure that was primarily exfoliated. Occasionally, all nanocomposites showed a decrease of the thermal stability (from 426°C to 398°C, in the case of OMMT-15A) and in the heat of reaction (from 115.4 J.g-1 to 40.8 J.g-1, in the case of OMMT-30B) which interfered with the epoxy resin’s reactivity. The surface irregularity of the power paint formulations was found to increase with an increase in the contact angle (from 78.1° to 87°, for MOOT-15A). Subcutaneous migration carried out following exposure to salt spray and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy analysis revealed an improvement (according to Niquist diagrams) in anticorrosive performance in comparison to the matrix.
RaviSRaviMSelviJA. Nano-hybrid smart coatings for automotive applications. In Nano-hybrid smart coatings: advancements in industrial efficiency and corrosion resistance. ACS Publication; 2024, pp. 227–243.
KhaleelNARanaMSBushraHM. Effect of nano powders on the surface and adhesion properties of epoxy and polyester-based polymeric coatings. J Elastomers Plast2025; 57: 613.
4.
ParryRADubeyKModiA, et al.Effect of surfactants on the structural, microstructural, optical, and photoluminescence characteristics of nanostructured SnO2 compounds. Results Opt2024; 16: 100677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rio.2024.100677
5.
RodičPKapunBMiloševI. Complementary corrosion protection of cast AlSi7Mg0. 3 alloy using Zr-Cr conversion and polyacrylic/siloxane-silica multilayer coatings. npj Mater Degrad2024; 8: 58. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41529-024-00467-5
6.
LiFHuYLiuF, et al.Accelerated method design and mechanism analysis on the corrosion of tinplate in anhydrous ethanol. J Test Eval2025; 53: 803–812. https://doi.org/10.1520/jte20240282
7.
GongJWeiHHaoP, et al.Study on the influence of metal substrates on protective performance of the coating by EIS. Materials2024; 17: 378. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17020378
8.
SelvaraniJTJMathewsMJoyJ, et al.Lithium carbonate-based hydrophobic/self-healing multifunctional coating for magnesium alloy AZ31B. ACS Appl Eng Mater2025; 3: 2967–2978. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsaenm.5c00478
9.
ZandRZVerbekenKAdriaensA. Influence of the cerium concentration on the corrosion performance of Ce-doped silica hybrid coatings on hot dip galvanized steel substrates. Int J Electrochem Sci2013; 8: 548–563. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1452-3981(23)14040-5
10.
Al AbriSKnowlesTPanY, et al.Multilayer PEO coatings with encapsulated cerium for active corrosion protection of aluminum. npj Mater Degrad2025; 9: 24.
11.
Al JuhaimanLAAl JufareenMAAl-ZahraniSM, et al.Smart coating of carbon steel using polystyrene clay nanocomposites loaded with cerium and silanol inhibitors: characterization and electrochemical study. Polymers2024; 16: 3196. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16223196
12.
LiGLiYLinC, et al.Corrosion protective properties on 2024-T3 of chitosan-modified montmorillonite epoxy coatings based on Ce3+ loading. J Appl Polym Sci2024; 141: e56080. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.56080
13.
SuJZhangYHuangP, et al.Construction of a mixed epoxy composite anti-corrosion coating of cerium ion-modified montmorillonite as “brick” and ZIF as “mortar”. Colloids Surf A Ohysicochem Eng Asp2026; 728: 138596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2025.138596
14.
LiXShaoYWangY, et al.Eco-friendly design of active montmorillonite nanofillers for reinforcing the anti-corrosion property of epoxy coating. Appl Clay Sci2025; 267: 107739. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clay.2025.107739
15.
MoradkhaniAPanahizadehVHoseinpourM. Indentation fracture resistance of brittle materials using irregular cracks: a review. Heliyon2023; 9: e19361. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e19361
16.
CamaESPasiniMGiovanellaU, et al.Crack-templated patterns in thin films: fabrication techniques, characterization, and emerging applications. Coatings2025; 15: 189. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings15020189
17.
ManamBULanghofNSitzmannC, et al.Overview of interfacial fracture toughness testing of ceramic coatings at room and elevated temperatures. Theor Appl Fract Mech2025; 140: 105142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2025.105142
18.
ChaiebHEMaurelVAmmarK, et al.In-situ localization of damage in a Zn-Al-Mg coating deposited on steel by continuous hot-dip galvanizing. Scr Mater2024; 243: 115960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scriptamat.2023.115960
19.
ChengWRossiEBauerJ, et al.Unlocking superior fracture resistance in micro-ceramics for architected meta-materials via ALD stress engineering. Acta Mater2025; 301: 121474. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2025.121474
20.
SalviDTrovalusciFVescoS. Gaseous nitrogen as carrier in polyester corona charging powder coating: advancing process quality, efficiency, and environmental sustainability. Clean Technol Envir2025; 27: 6149–6165. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-025-03249-y
21.
KardeVKhalaMKisukaF, et al.A review of dry powder coating: techniques, theory, and applications. KONA Powder Part J2025; 43: 93.
22.
ZhuXXieJZhangH, et al.Insights into powder coating excellence: unveiling the effects of particle-size distribution. Prog Org Coat2024; 197: 108815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2024.108815
23.
BarbosaRAraújoEMde MeloTJA, et al.Preparation of organophilic clays and development of polyethylene nanocomposites. Part 2: flammability behavior. Polímeros2007; 17: 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0104-14282007000200009
24.
HenriquesRRCareloJCSoaresBG. Anti-corrosive and self-healing properties of epoxy coatings loaded with montmorillonite modified with zinc-based ionic liquid. Prog Org Coat2024; 187: 108185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2023.108185
25.
ShenkTMBenjaminKMWinterRM. Enhancing conductivity and mechanical properties in epoxy composites through generating percolated structures using novel acoustic pre‐mixing method. J Polym Sci2025; 63: 3421–3431. https://doi.org/10.1002/pol.20250321
LakshmiMSNarmadhaBReddyBSR. Enhanced thermal stability and structural characteristics of different MMT-clay/epoxy-nanocomposite materials. Polym Degrad Stab2008; 93: 201–213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2007.10.005
28.
BabarMKaurLVermaG. Evaluation of clay loaded polyurethane nanocomposite coatings for thermal, mechanical and water barrier performance. Surf Interfaces2025; 58: 105810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfin.2025.105810
29.
ChenXHSunYXManC, et al.Effect of low curing temperature on the anticorrosion performance of composite coatings reinforced with modified Fe3O4. J Cent South Univ2024; 31: 3435–3446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11771-024-5793-2
30.
ZhangXWangDLiuS, et al.Hierarchical bioinspired nanocontainer for magnesium alloys: effective corrosion inhibition and antifouling. J Magnes Alloy2025; 13: 5855.
31.
GuALiangG. Thermal degradation behaviour and kinetic analysis of epoxy/montmorillonite nanocomposites. Polym Degrad Stab2003; 80: 383–391. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0141-3910(03)00026-0
32.
SuprakasRSOrasughJTTemaneLT. Application of nanoclays in paints and coatings. In: Nanoclays: materials properties and advanced applications. Springer Nature Switzerland, 2025, pp. 223–287.
33.
GarkalAShahSPatelL, et al.Layered silicates for biosensing and imaging applications. In: Two‐dimensional nanomaterials for biosensing and imaging applications. Wiley, 2026, pp. 301–322.
34.
JombohKJ. Dynamic mechanical thermal analysis of polyester reinforced hybrid composites: a review. Thermal Advances2025; 3: 100041. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thradv.2025.100041
35.
ArasaVPethrickRAMantecónA, et al.New thermosetting nanocomposites prepared from diglycidyl ether of bisphenol and γ-valerolactone initiated by rare Earth triflate initiators. Eur Polym J2010; 46: 5–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2009.09.016
HaSRRyuSHParkSJ, et al.Effect of clay surface modification and concentration on the tensile performance of clay/epoxy nanocomposites. Mater Sci Eng A2007; 448: 264–268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2006.10.052
38.
MouryaPGoswamiRNSainiR, et al.Epoxy coating reinforced with graphene-PANI nanocomposites for enhancement of corrosion-resistance performance of mild steel in saline water. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp2024; 687: 133500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2024.133500
39.
VelmuruganRMohanTP. Epoxy-clay nanocomposites and hybrids: synthesis and characterization. J Reinforc Plast Compos2009; 28: 17–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731684407081439
40.
RudawskaA. The effects of temperature on mechanical properties of neat and montmorillonite reinforced epoxy compounds. J Adhes2025; 101: 265–298. https://doi.org/10.1080/00218464.2024.2317208
41.
VarugheseJJSreekanthMS. Influence of silane and polyethylene glycol functionalization of boron nitride nanosheets on mechanical and thermal properties of epoxy nanocomposites: machine and deep learning forecasting. Polymer Compos2025; 46: 2190–2208.
42.
MehdiHSinghJSinghRK, et al. Improvement of metallurgical and wear properties of the different substrate by high-velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) coating: a critical review. J Adhes Sci Technol. 2025; 40: 1–45.
43.
MalucelliGDi GianniADeflorianF, et al.Preparation of ultraviolet-cured nanocomposite coatings for protecting against corrosion of metal substrates. Corros Sci2009; 51: 1762–1771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2009.04.026
44.
CarrascoFPagèsP. Thermal degradation and stability of epoxy nanocomposites: influence of montmorillonite content and cure temperature. Polym Degrad Stab2008; 93: 1000–1007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polymdegradstab.2008.01.018
45.
DanielIMMiyagawaHGdoutosEE, et al.Preparation and characterization of epoxy/clay nanocomposites. Soc Fro Exp Mech2003; 43: 348–354. https://doi.org/10.1177/0014485103036038
RudawskaA. Formulations of epoxy resins. In: Micro-and Nanostructured Epoxy Thermosetting Polymer Blends and their Nanocomposites. Elsevier, 2026, pp. 39–68.
49.
JoHJKwakYJTakaiM, et al.Blackening phenomenon and corrosion resistance of Zn-Mg alloy coated steel by steam treatment. Appl Surf Sci2024; 672: 160838. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsusc.2024.160838
50.
PessoaMOFreitasBRde Oliveira BragaJ, et al.Anticorrosion and adhesion performance of a monolayer and double layer silane-epoxy coating systems applied on carbon steel. Surf Coating Technol2024; 485: 130909. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2024.130909
51.
MirabediniSMKiamaneshA. The effect of micro and nano-sized particles on mechanical and adhesion properties of a clear polyester powder coating. Prog Org Coating2013; 76: 1625–1632. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2013.07.009
52.
LaiLQianFBiY, et al.Advancements in the preparation and application of Ni-Co system (alloys, composites, and coatings): a review. Nanomaterials2025; 15: 312. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano15040312
53.
IslamMRBegMDHJamariSS. Dispersion of montmorillonite nanoclays and their effects on the thermomechanical, structural and drying properties of palm oil based coating. Prog Org Coating2016; 91: 17–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.porgcoat.2015.11.015
YangMSXianCChenJ, et al.Optimizing anti-corrosive properties of polyester powder coatings through montmorillonite-based nanoclay additive and film thickness. Corros Mater Degrad2025; 6: 39. https://doi.org/10.3390/cmd6030039
56.
LuzAPRibeiroSPandolfelliVC. Review article: use of the wettability in the investigation of the corrosion behaviour of the refractory materials. Ceramica2008; 54: 174–183. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0366-69132008000200007
57.
BertuoliPTFrizzoVPPiazzaD, et al.Mechanical properties and corrosion protection of carbon steel coated with an epoxy based powder coating containing montmorilonite functionalized with silane. Tecnol Met Mater Miner2014; 11: 180–186. https://doi.org/10.4322/tmm.2014.026
58.
SharmaNSharmaSSharmaSK, et al.Synergistic corrosion prevention of mild steel bars in concrete using PANI and nano-clay modified epoxy coatings. J Build Eng2024; 98: 111509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2024.111509
59.
AltannyhiKAElnaggarEMElsayedBA, et al.Synthesis, characterization, and coating application of a highly conductive polyaniline-TiO2 nanocomposite. Egyptian J Pet2024; 33: 14. https://doi.org/10.62593/2090-2468.1001
60.
DarmianiEDanaeeIRashedGR, et al.Formulation and study of corrosion prevention behavior of epoxy cerium nitrate-montmorillonite nanocomposite coated carbon steel. J Coating Technol Res2013; 10: 493–502. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11998-012-9463-1
61.
Zandi ZandRVerbekenKFlexerV, et al.Effects of ceria nanoparticle concentrations on the morphology and corrosion resistance of cerium-silane hybrid coatings on electro-galvanized steel substrates. Mater Chem Phys2014; 145: 450–460. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2014.02.035
62.
BehzadnasabMMirabediniSMKabiriK, et al.Corrosion performance of epoxy coatings containing silane treated ZrO2 nanoparticles on mild steel in 3.5% NaCl solution. Corros Sci2011; 53: 89–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.corsci.2010.09.026
63.
HasanMAcarP. Machine learning reinforced microstructure-sensitive prediction of material property closures. Comput Mater Sci2022; 210: 110930. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.commatsci.2021.110930
64.
MaalihanRDDomalantaMRBCorralesACC, et al.Advances in interfacially engineered surface-functionalized fillers for multifunctional polymer composite coatings. Polym Compos2025; 46: 5857–5881. https://doi.org/10.1002/pc.29358
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
