In this paper self-sensing nanocomposite formulations made of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene and different loading (3, 5 and 10 wt%) of multi-walled carbon nanotubes have been produced and 3D printed via fused filament fabrication. The nanocomposites have been characterized from a rheological, mechanical, thermal and electrical point of view to assess the strain-sensing properties. All the samples show a piezoresistive behaviour and the electrical resistance changes when a stress is applied. The gauge factor, measure of the sensitivity, for ABS 3CNT, ABS 5CNT and ABS 10CNT are 11.36, 3.21 and 1.62, respectively. The ABS 3CNT samples have shown the best self-sensing performances with high sensitivity and this formulation has been used for producing a health-monitoring 3D-printed smart structure where the active material is placed locally in the structure. The 3D-printed structure itself is able to monitor the strain and hence the stress level to which is subjected with a gauge factor of 1.5. A finite element analysis helps to explain the reason for reduced sensitivity namely the placement of the sensing layer.
BragagliaMLamastraFRRussoP, et al.A comparison of thermally conductive polyamide 6 - boron nitride composites produced via additive layer manufacturing and compression moulding. Polym Compos2021; 42. DOI: 10.1002/PC.26010.
2.
LiuXWuZWangR, et al.Experimental study of the electrical resistivity of glass-carbon/epoxy hybrid composites. Polym Polym Compos2014; 22: 289–292. DOI: 10.1177/096739111402200310.
3.
PigliaruLPaleariLBragagliaM, et al.Poly-ether-ether-ketone – neodymium-iron-boron bonded permanent magnets via fused filament fabrication. Synth Met2021; 279. DOI: 10.1016/j.synthmet.2021.116857.
4.
ChungDDL. Self-monitoring structural materials. Mater Sci Eng R Rep1998; 22. DOI: 10.1016/S0927-796X(97)00021-1.
NanniFRuscitoGPugliaD, et al.Effect of carbon black nanoparticle intrinsic properties on the self-monitoring performance of glass fibre reinforced composite rods. Compos Sci Technol2011; 71: 1–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2010.08.015.
7.
BundeADieterichW. Percolation in composites. J Electroceramics2000; 5: 81–92. DOI: 10.1023/A:1009997800513.
8.
ZhangWDehghani-SanijAABlackburnRS. Carbon based conductive polymer composites. J Mater Sci2007; 42: 3408–3418. DOI: 10.1007/s10853-007-1688-5.
9.
SaarMOMangaM. Continuum percolation for randomly oriented soft-core prisms. Phys Rev E Stat Nonlin Soft Matter Phys2002; 65: 056131. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevE.65.056131.
10.
TianchenYJianYRuigangS, et al.A geometric percolation model for non-spherical excluded volumes. J Phys D Appl Phys2003; 36: 738. DOI: 10.1088/0022-3727/36/6/317.
11.
DuFFischerJEWineyKI. Effect of nanotube alignment on percolation conductivity in carbon nanotube/polymer composites. Phys Rev B2005; 72: 121404. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.72.121404.
12.
AguilarJOBautista-QuijanoJRAvilesF. Influence of carbon nanotube clustering on the electrical conductivity of polymer composite films. Express Polym Lett2010; 4: 292–299. DOI: 10.3144/expresspolymlett.2010.37.
13.
KovacsJZVelagalaBSSchulteK, et al.Two percolation thresholds in carbon nanotube epoxy composites. Compos Sci Technol2007; 67: 922–928. DOI: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2006.02.037.
14.
CelzardAMcRaeEDeleuzeC, et al.Critical concentration in percolating systems containing a high-aspect-ratio filler. Phys Rev B1996; 53. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.53.6209.
15.
BauhoferWKovacsJZ. A review and analysis of electrical percolation in carbon nanotube polymer composites. Compos Sci Technol2009; 69: 1486–1498. DOI: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2008.06.018.
KumanekBJanasD. Thermal conductivity of carbon nanotube networks: a review. J Mater Sci2019; 54: 7397–7427. DOI: 10.1007/S10853-019-03368-0/TABLES/6.
18.
MohamedOAMasoodSHBhowmikJL. Optimization of fused deposition modeling process parameters: a review of current research and future prospects. Adv Manuf2015; 3: 42–53.
19.
VidakisNPetousisMTzounisL, et al.Polyamide 12/multiwalled carbon nanotube and carbon black nanocomposites manufactured by 3D printing fused filament fabrication: a comparison of the electrical, thermoelectric, and mechanical properties. C2021; 77: 38. DOI: 10.3390/C7020038.
20.
ZhangJYangBFuF, et al.Resistivity and its anisotropy characterization of 3D-printed Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Copolymer (ABS)/Carbon Black (CB) composites. Appl Sci2017; 7: 2020. DOI: 10.3390/APP7010020.
21.
QianYLiCQiY, et al.3D printing of graphene oxide composites with well controlled alignment. Carbon2021; 171: 777–784. DOI: 10.1016/J.CARBON.2020.08.077.
22.
ZhangDChiBLiB, et al.Fabrication of highly conductive graphene flexible circuits by 3D printing. Synth Met2016; 217: 79–86. DOI: 10.1016/J.SYNTHMET.2016.03.014.
23.
FosterCWDownMPZhangY, et al.3D printed graphene based energy storage devices. Sci Rep2017; 7: 1–11. DOI: 10.1038/srep42233.
TekinalpHLKuncVVelez-GarciaGM, et al.Highly oriented carbon fiber-polymer composites via additive manufacturing. Compos Sci Technol2014; 105: 144–150. DOI: 10.1016/J.COMPSCITECH.2014.10.009.
26.
HuangPXiaZCuiS. 3D printing of carbon fiber-filled conductive silicon rubber. Mater Des2018; 142: 11–21. DOI: 10.1016/J.MATDES.2017.12.051.
27.
GnanasekaranKHeijmansTvan BennekomS, et al.3D printing of CNT- and graphene-based conductive polymer nanocomposites by fused deposition modeling. Appl Mater Today2017; 9: 21–28. DOI: 10.1016/j.apmt.2017.04.003.
28.
IvanovEKotsilkovaRXiaH, et al.PLA/Graphene/MWCNT composites with improved electrical and thermal properties suitable for FDM 3D printing applications. Appl Sci2019; 9. DOI: 10.3390/app9061209.
29.
ZhengYHuangXChenJ, et al.A review of conductive carbon materials for 3D printing: materials, technologies, properties, and applications. Materials2021; 14: 3911. DOI: 10.3390/MA14143911.
30.
KimMJungJJungS, et al.Piezoresistive behaviour of additively manufactured multi-walled carbon nanotube/thermoplastic polyurethane nanocomposites. Materials2019; 12: 2613. DOI: 10.3390/ma12162613.
31.
DawoudMTahaIEbeidSJ. Strain sensing behaviour of 3D printed carbon black filled ABS. J Manuf Process2018; 35: 337–342. DOI: 10.1016/j.jmapro.2018.08.012.
32.
YeWWuWHuX, et al.3D printing of carbon nanotubes reinforced thermoplastic polyimide composites with controllable mechanical and electrical performance. Compos Sci Technol2019; 182: 107671. DOI: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2019.05.028.
33.
DulSFambriLPegorettiA. Filaments production and fused deposition modelling of ABS/carbon nanotubes composites. Nanomaterials2018; 8: 49. DOI: 10.3390/nano8010049.
34.
DulSPegorettiAFambriL. Fused filament fabrication of piezoresistive carbon nanotubes nanocomposites for strain monitoring. Front Mater2020; 7: 1–13. DOI: 10.3389/fmats.2020.00012.
35.
MauriziMSlavičJCianettiF, et al.Dynamic measurements using FDM 3D-printed embedded strain sensors. Sensors (Basel)2019; 19. DOI: 10.3390/s19122661.
36.
NassarHNtagiosMNavarajWT, et al.Multi-material 3D printed bendable smart sensing structures. In: 2018 IEEE SENSORS, 28-31 October 2018, New Delhi, India. DOI: 10.1109/ICSENS.2018.8589625.
37.
GeorgopoulouAVanderborghtBClemensF. Multi-material 3D printing of thermoplastic elastomers for development of soft robotic structures with integrated sensor elements. Ind Addit Manuf2021: 67–81. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-54334-1_6.
38.
EmonMOFAlkadiFPhilipDG, et al.Multi-material 3D printing of a soft pressure sensor. Addit Manuf2019; 28: 629–638. DOI: 10.1016/J.ADDMA.2019.06.001.
39.
NgoTDKashaniAImbalzanoG, et al.Additive manufacturing (3D printing): a review of materials, methods, applications and challenges. Compos B: Eng2018; 143: 172–196, DOI: 10.1016/J.COMPOSITESB.2018.02.012.
40.
KracheRDebahI. Some mechanical and thermal properties of PC/ABS blends. Mater Sci Appl2011; 02: 404–410. DOI: 10.4236/msa.2011.25052.
41.
ASTM D638-14 - Standard Test Method for Tensile Properties of Plastics, 2014. DOI: 10.1520/D0638-14.
NadivRFernandesRMFOchbaumG, et al.Polymer nanocomposites: insights on rheology, percolation and molecular mobility. Polymer2018; 153: 52–60. DOI: 10.1016/J.POLYMER.2018.07.079.
44.
WangMWangWLiuT, et al.Melt rheological properties of nylon 6/multi-walled carbon nanotube composites. Compos Sci Technol2008; 68: 2498–2502. DOI: 10.1016/J.COMPSCITECH.2008.05.002.
45.
ZhangRDowdenADengH, et al.Conductive network formation in the melt of carbon nanotube/thermoplastic polyurethane composite. Compos Sci Technol2009; 69: 1499–1504. DOI: 10.1016/J.COMPSCITECH.2008.11.039.
46.
GibsonMAMykulowyczNMShimJ, et al.3D printing metals like thermoplastics: fused filament fabrication of metallic glasses. Mater Today2018; 21: 697–702. DOI: 10.1016/j.mattod.2018.07.001.
47.
KhaliqMHGomesRFernandesC, et al.On the use of high viscosity polymers in the fused filament fabrication process. Rapid Prototyp J2017; 23: 727–735. DOI: 10.1108/RPJ-02-2016-0027/FULL/XML.
48.
AligISkipaTLellingerD, et al.Destruction and formation of a carbon nanotube network in polymer melts: rheology and conductivity spectroscopy. Polymer2008; 49: 3524–3532. DOI: 10.1016/J.POLYMER.2008.05.037.
49.
SuzukiMWilkieCA. The thermal degradation of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene terpolymei as studied by TGA/FTIR. Polym Degrad Stab1995; 47: 217–221. DOI: 10.1016/0141-3910(94)00122-O.
50.
TsujiHKawashimaYTakikawaH, et al.Poly(l-lactide)/nano-structured carbon composites: conductivity, thermal properties, crystallization, and biodegradation. Polymer2007; 48: 4213–4225. DOI: 10.1016/J.POLYMER.2007.05.040.
51.
KashiwagiTGrulkeEHildingJ, et al.Thermal degradation and flammability properties of poly(propylene)/carbon nanotube composites. Macromol Rapid Commun2002; 23: 761–765. DOI: 10.1002/1521-3927.
YangSRafael CastillejaJRBarreraEV, et al.Thermal analysis of an acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene/SWNT composite. Polym Degrad Stab2004; 83: 383–388. DOI: 10.1016/J.POLYMDEGRADSTAB.2003.08.002.
54.
GutierrezBJADulSPegorettiA, et al.Investigation of the effects of multi-wall and single-wall carbon nanotubes concentration on the properties of ABS nanocomposites. C2021; 7: 33. DOI: 10.3390/C7020033.
55.
ThomasSPGireiSAAtiehMA, et al.Rheological behavior of polypropylene nanocomposites at low concentration of surface modified carbon nanotubes. Polym Eng Sci2012; 52: 1868–1873. DOI: 10.1002/PEN.23143.
Sánchez-RomateXFArtigasJJiménez-SuárezA, et al.Critical parameters of carbon nanotube reinforced composites for structural health monitoring applications: empirical results versus theoretical predictions. Compos Sci Technol2019; 171: 44–53. DOI: 10.1016/j.compscitech.2018.12.010.
58.
SocherRKrauseBMüllerMT, et al.The influence of matrix viscosity on MWCNT dispersion and electrical properties in different thermoplastic nanocomposites. Polymer2012; 53: 495–504. DOI: 10.1016/J.POLYMER.2011.12.019.
59.
JyotiJBasuSSinghBP, et al.Superior mechanical and electrical properties of multiwall carbon nanotube reinforced acrylonitrile butadiene styrene high performance composites. Compos B: Eng2015; 83: 58–65. DOI: 10.1016/J.COMPOSITESB.2015.08.055.
60.
BragagliaMPaleariLLamastraFR, et al.Graphene nanoplatelet, multiwall carbon nanotube, and hybrid multiwall carbon nanotube-graphene nanoplatelet epoxy nanocomposites as strain sensing coatings. J Reinf Plast Compos2021; 40: 632–643. DOI: 10.1177/0731684421994324.
61.
BellehumeurCLiLSunQ, et al.Modeling of bond formation between polymer filaments in the fused deposition modeling process. J Manuf Process2004; 6: 170–178.
62.
SunQRizviGMBellehumeurCT, et al.Effect of processing conditions on the bonding quality of FDM polymer filaments. Rapid Prototyp J2008; 14: 72–80.
63.
CicalaGGiordanoDTostoC, et al.Polylactide (PLA) filaments a biobased solution for additive manufacturing : correlating rheology and thermomechanical properties with printing quality. Materials (Basel)2018; 11. DOI: 10.3390/ma11071191.
64.
SgrullettiMBragagliaMGiarnettiS, et al.Understanding the impact of fused filament fabrication conditions on the microstructure and tensile properties of polyamide 6 by thermal and optical live monitoring. Mater Today Commun2021; 28: 102679. DOI: 10.1016/J.MTCOMM.2021.102679.
65.
LiBZhongWH. Review on polymer/graphite nanoplatelet nanocomposites. J Mater Sci2011; 46: 5595–5614. DOI: 10.1007/S10853-011-5572-Y.
66.
WichmannMHGBuschhornSTGehrmannJ, et al.Piezoresistive response of epoxy composites with carbon nanoparticles under tensile load. Phys Rev B2009; 80: 245437. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevB.80.245437.
67.
AmjadiMYoonYJParkI. Ultra-stretchable and skin-mountable strain sensors using carbon nanotubes-Ecoflex nanocomposites. Nanotechnology2015; 26: 375501. DOI: 10.1088/0957-4484/26/37/375501.
68.
LiCThostensonETChouTW. Dominant role of tunneling resistance in the electrical conductivity of carbon nanotube-based composites. Appl Phys Lett2007; 91. DOI: 10.1063/1.2819690.
69.
LuhengWTianhuaiDPengW. Influence of carbon black concentration on piezoresistivity for carbon-black-filled silicone rubber composite. Carbon2009; 47: 3151–3157. DOI: 10.1016/j.carbon.2009.06.050.
70.
PaleariLBragagliaMFabbrocinoF, et al.Structural monitoring of glass fiber/epoxy laminates by means of carbon nanotubes and carbon black self-monitoring plies. Nanomaterials2021; 11: 1543. DOI: 10.3390/NANO11061543.
71.
GereJM. Mechanics of materials. 6th ed.Belmont, CA, USA: Brooks/Cole–Thomson Learning, 2004.
