Tardive dyskinesia is a frequent complication of a neuroleptic treatment. The physiopathology is unclear and the curative treatments inadequate. This explains the necessity for preventive measures at three levels: the prescription of neuroleptics, the evaluation of risk factors and early diagnosis. An analysis of epidemiological studies allows the evaluation of risk factors published in literature.
References
1.
KaneJ.M., SmithJ.M.Tardive dyskinesia.Arch Gen psychiatry1982; 39: 473–481.
2.
SimpsonG.M., PiE.H., SramekJ.J.An update on tardive dyskinesia.Hosp Community psychiatry1986; 37: 362–369.
3.
KaneJ.M., WoernerM., LiebermanJ.Tardive dyskinesia; prevalence, incidence and risk factors. In: CaseyD.E., ChaseT.N., ChristensenA.V., GerlachJ., eds. Dyskinesia - research and treatment.Berlin/ Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag,1985: 72–78.
4.
YassaR., AnanthJ., CordozoS., AllyJ.Tardive dyskinesia in an outpatient population: prevalence and predisposing factors.Can J psychiatry1983; 28(5): 391–394.
5.
SmithJ.M., BaldessariniR.J.Changes in prevalence, severity and recovery in tardive dyskinesia with age.Arch Gen psychiatry1980; 37: 1368–1373.
CutlerN.R., PostR.M., ReyA.C., BunneyW.E.Jr.Depression – dependent dyskinesias in two cases of manic-depressive illness.N Engl J Med1981; 304: 1088–1089.
9.
TrellesL., TrellesJ.O., CastanedaC., CastroC.Disparition des dyskinésies tardives au cours d'un accès maniaque.Rev Neurol1985; 141: 415–416.
10.
GoswamiU., NarayananH.S., ChannabasavannaS.M.A study of state-dependent reversal of tardive dyskinesia: phenome-nological probe in humans.J Clin Psychopharmacol1985; 5: 48–50.
11.
WolfM.E., RyanJ.J., MosnaïmA.D.Organicity and tardive dyskinesia.Psychosomatics1982; 23: 475–477.
12.
CsernanskyJ.G., KaplanJ., HolmanC.A., HollisterL.E.Serum neuroleptic activity, prolactin, and tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenic outpatients.Psychopharmacology1983; 81: 115–118.
UhrbrandL., FaurbyeA.Reversible and irreversible dyskinesia after treatment with perphenazine, chlorpromazine, reserpine and electroconvulsive therapy.Psychopharmacologia1960; 1: 408–418.
17.
HolcombH.H., SternbergD.E., HeningerG.R.Effects of electroconvulsive therapy on mood, parkinsonism and tardive dyskinesia in a depressed patient; ECT and dopamine systems.Biol Psychiatry1983; 18: 865–873.
18.
DemarsJ.P.Neuromuscular effects of long-term phenothiazine medication, electroconvulsive therapy, and leucotomy.J Nerv Ment Dis1966; 143: 73–79.
19.
PriceT.R., LevinR.The effects of electroconvulsive therapy on tardive dyskinesia.Am J Psychiatry1978; 135: 991–993.
20.
GilsonA.Depot injections and tardive dyskinesia.Br J Psychiatry1978; 132: 361–365.
21.
SmithR.C., StrizichM., KlassD.Drug history in tardive dyskinesia.Am J psychiatry1978; 135: 1402–1403.
22.
Ezrin-WatersC., SeemanM.V., SeemanP.Tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenic outpatients; prevalence and significant variables.J Clin psychiatry1981; 42: 16–22.
PiE.H., SimpsonG.M.Atypical neuroleptics; clozapine and the benzamides in the prevention and treatment of tardive dyskinesia. In: BannetJ., BelmakerR.H., eds. New directions in tardive dyskinesia research.Basel: Karger,1983: 80–86.
25.
TecottL.H., KwongL.L., UhrS., PeroutkaS.J.Differential modulation of dopamine D2 receptors by chronic haloperidol, nitrendipine and pimozide.Biol Psychiatry1986; 21: 1114–1122.
26.
SmithR.C., MisraC.H., AllenR., GordonJ.Dosage and blood levels of neuroleptics in tardive dyskinesia. In: BannetJ., BelmakerR.H., eds. New directions in tardive dyskinesia research.Basel: Karger,1983: 87–96.
27.
KolakowskaT., WilliamsA.O., ArdemM., ReveleyM.A.Tardive dyskinesia in schizophrenics under 60 years of age.Biol Psychiatry1986; 21: 161–169.
BaldessariniR.J., ColeJ.O., DavisJ.M., SimpsonG., TarsyD., GardosG., PreskornS.H.Tardive dyskinesia: summary of a Task Force Report of the American Psychiatric Association.Am J Psychiatry1980; 137: 1163–1171.
36.
JesteD.V., WyattR.J.Prevention and management of tardive dyskinesia.J Clin Psychiatry1985; 46: 14–18.
