IPV is an underrecognized problem that occurs in all countries,
cultures, and socioeconomic groups.
IPV has an enormous impact on personal health, and economic and
social well-being.
IPV may occur in heterosexual and LGBTQ relationships and may be
perpetrated by either sex.
Canadian data from 1999 show about equal proportions of men and women
had been victims of physical (seven and eight per cent,
respectively) and psychological (18 and 19 per cent, respectively)
IPV in the previous five years.
Exposure to IPV has deleterious effects on children and other family
members.
Some populations are at greater risk or have special needs for IPV.
These include immigrant women, Aboriginal women, LGBTQ communities,
people with ALs, pregnant women, dating adolescents, older people,
alcohol and other substance abusing people, low-income people, and
those without a current partner (that is, IPV perpetrated by a
former partner).
Mental health problems associated with IPV include depression,
anxiety disorders, chronic pain syndromes, eating disorders, sleep
disorders, psychosomatic disorders, alcohol and other substance
abuse, suicidal and self-harm behaviours, nonaffective psychosis,
some personality disorders, and harmful health behaviours, such as
risk taking and smoking. As IPV is a major determinant of mental
health, it is of vital importance to mental health
professionals.
Physical health problems associated with IPV include death, a broad
range of injuries, reproductive disorders, gastrointestinal
disorders, chronic pain syndromes, fibromyalgia, poor physical
functioning, and lower health-related quality of life. Sexually
transmitted diseases, unwanted pregnancies and physical inactivity
are also increased.
Children's exposure to IPV may have short- and long-term
health impacts on the child, especially mental health effects.
Perpetrators of IPV most frequently have personality disorders, but
substance abuse and other types of mental illness or brain
dysfunction may also occur.
References
1.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC) and
Prevention, National Centre for Injury Prevention and Control.
Intimate partner violence: definitions [Internet].
Atlanta (GA):
CDC; 2002 [updated 20 Sep
2010; cited 2012 May 5]. Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/intimatepartnerviolence/definitions.html.
2.
World Health Organization (WHO),
London Shool of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Preventing
intimate partner and sexual violence against women and taking actions and
generating evidence. Geneva (CH):
WHO; 2010.
3.
StewartDE. World Psychiatric Association consensus statement on
intimate partner violence against women. World
Psychiatry.2006;5:61–64.
BishopJ, PattersonPG. Guidelines for the evaluation and management of family
violence. Can J Psychiatry.1992;37:458–471.
6.
KrugEG, DahbergLL, MercyJAet al, editors. World report on violence and health.
Geneva (CH): World Health
Organization; 2002.
7.
Garcia-MorenoC, WattsC. Violence against women: an urgent public health
priority. Bull World Health Organ.2011;89:2.
8.
Centers for Disease Control (CDC)
and Prevention, National Centre for Injury Prevention and Control.
Intimate partner violence [Internet].
Atlanta (GA):
CDC; 2011 [cited 2012 May 5].
Available from: http://www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention/pdf/IPVfactsheet.
9.
VarcoeC, HankivskyO, Ford-GilboeM. Attributing selected costs to intimate partner
violence in a sample of women who have left abusive partners: a social
determinants of health approach. Can Public
Policy.2011;37:359–380.
10.
TrevillionK, OramS, FederG. Domestic violence and mental disorders: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS
One.2012;7(12):e51740.
11.
CampbellJC. Health consequences of intimate partner
violence. Lancet.2002;359:1331–1336.
12.
Statistics Canada, Canadian Centre
for Justice Statistics. Family violence in Canada: a
statistical profile [Internet]. Ottawa
(ON): Statistics Canada;
2011 [cited 2012 Mar 6]. Available from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-224-x/85-224-x2010000-eng.htm.p8.
13.
EllsbergM, JansenHA, HeiseL. Intimate partner violence and women's
physical and mental health in the WHO multi-country study on women's
health and domestic violence: an observational study.
Lancet.2008;371:1165–1172.
Statistics Canada.
General Social Survey (cycle 13). Ottawa
(ON): Statistics Canada;
1999.
16.
CarlileJB. Spouse assault on mentally disordered
wives. Can J Psychiatry.1991;36:265–269.
17.
DienemannJ, BoyleE, BakerD. Intimate partner abuse among women diagnosed with
depression. Issues Ment Health Nurs.2000;21:499–513.
18.
HeruAM, StewartEL, RaineyS. Prevalence and severity of intimate partner
violence and associations with family functioning and alcohol abuse in
psychiatric inpatients with suicidal intent. J Clin
Psychiatry.2006;67:23–29.
19.
JohnsonMP. Conflict and control. Violence
Against Women.2006;12:1003–1018.
20.
AnsaraDL, HindinMJ. Formal and informal help-seeking associated with
women's and men's experiences of intimate partner violence in
Canada. Soc Sci Med.2010;70:1011–1018.
WuestJ, Ford-GilboeM, Merritt-GrayM. Pathways of chronic pain in survivors of intimate
partner violence. J Womens Health
(Larchmt).2010;19:1665–1674.
24.
WuestJ, Ford-GilboeM, Merritt-GrayM. Abuse-related injury and symptoms of
posttraumatic stress disorder as mechanisms of chronic pain in survivors of
intimate partner violence. Pain Med.2009;10:739–747.
25.
Ford-GilboeM, WuestJ, VarcoeC. Modelling the effects of intimate partner
violence and access to resources on women's health in the early years
after leaving an abusive partner. Soc Sci
Med.2009;68:1021–1029.
CoxellAW, KingMB. Male victims of rape and sexual abuse.
Sex Relation Ther.2010;25:380–391.
28.
JohnsonH. Assessing the prevalence of violence against women in
Canada. Stat J UN Econ Comm Eur.2005;22:225–238.
29.
WathenCN, JamiesonE, WilsonM. Risk indicators to identify intimate partner
violence in the emergency department. Open
Med.2007;1(2):e113–e122.
Available from: http://www.openmedicine.ca/article/view/63/62.
30.
Royal College of
Psychiatrists. Policy statement on domestic
violence. Council Report CR102.
London (GB): Royal College of
Psychiatrists; 2002.
31.
FazelS, SinghJP, DollH. Use of risk assessment instruments to predict
violence and antisocial behaviour in 73 samples involving 24 827 people:
systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ.2012;345:e4692.
32.
WebsterC, DouglasK, EavesD. HCR-20: assessing risk for violence—version
2. Burnaby (BC):
Simon Fraser University Mental Health, Law and Policy
Institute; 1997.
33.
DouglasKS, OgloffJR, NichollsTL. Assessing risk for violence among psychiatric
patients: the HCR-20 violence risk assessment scheme and the psychopathy
checklist: screening version. J Consult Clin
Psychol.1999;67:917–930.
34.
YoshiokaMR, ChoiDV. Culture and interpersonal violence
research. J Interpers Violence.2005;20:513–519.
35.
HassanG, ThombsBD, RousseauC. Intimate partner violence: evidence review for
newly arrived immigrants and refugees.
CMAJ.2011;183(62):E959–E967.
doi: 10.1503/cmaj.090313.
36.
AhmadF, AliM, StewartDE. Spousal-abuse among Canadian immigrant
women. J Immigr Health.2005;7:239–246.
BrownridgeDA. Understanding the elevated risk of partner violence
against Aboriginal women: a comparison of two nationally representative
surveys of Canada. J Fam Violence.2008;23:353–367.
39.
National Clearing House on Family
Violence. Family violence in Aboriginal communities: an
Aboriginal perspective. Ottawa (ON):
National Clearing House on Family Violence;
2007. Catologue no. H7221/150–1997[E].
ArdKL, MakadonHJ. Addressing intimate partner violence in lesbian, gay,
bisexual, and transgender patients. J Gen Intern
Med.2011;26:930–933.
42.
BalsamKF, LehavotK, BeadnellB. Sexual revictimization and mental health: a comparison
of lesbians, gay men, and heterosexual women. J
Interpers Violence.2011;26:1798–1814.
43.
NowinskiSN, BowenE. Partner violence against heterosexual and gay
men. Aggress Violent Behav.2012;17:36–52.
44.
BartholomewK, ReganKV, WhiteMA. Patterns of abuse in male same-sex
relationships. Violence Vict.2008;23:617–636.
45.
MessingerAM. Invisible victims: same-sex IPV in the National Violence
Against Women Survey. J Interpers Violence.2011;26:2228–2243.
46.
ChesleyLC, MacAulayD, RistockJ. Abuse in lesbian relationships: information and resources
[Internet]. Ottawa (ON):
Health Canada, National Clearinghouse on Family
Violence; 1998 [cited 2012 May 5]. Available
from: http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/ncfv-cnivf/publications/femlesbi-eng.php.
47.
CohenMM, ForteT, Du MontJ. Intimate partner violence among Canadian women
with activity limitations. Epidemiol Community
Health.2005;59:834–839.
48.
BrownridgeDA, RistockJ, Hiebert-MurphyD. The high risk of IPV against Canadian women with
disabilities. Med Sci Monit.2008;14:27–32.
49.
StewartDE, CecuttiA. Physical abuse in pregnancy.
CMAJ.1993;149:1257–1263.
50.
MuhajarineN, D'ArcyC. Physical abuse during pregnancy: prevalence and risk
factors. CMAJ.1999;160:1007–1011.
51.
MartinSL, MaekieL, KupperLL. Physical abuse of women before, during and after
pregnancy. JAMA.2001;285:1581–1584.
52.
StewartDE. Incidence of postpartum abuse in women with a history of
abuse during pregnancy. CMAJ.1994;151:1601–1604.
53.
HeiseLL. Reproductive freedom and violence against women: where
are the intersections?J Law Med Ethics.1993;21:206–216.
54.
DevriesKM, KishorS, JohnsonH. Intimate partner violence during pregnancy:
analysis of prevalence data from 19 countries.
Reprod Health Matters.2010;18:158–170.
55.
TaylorR, NaborsEL. Pink or blue … black and blue? Examining
pregnancy as a predictor of intimate partner violence and
femicide. Violence Against Women.2009;15:1273–1293.
56.
MacyRJ, MartinSL, KupperLL. Partner violence among women before, during, and
after pregnancy: multiple opportunities for intervention.
Womens Health Issues.2007;17:290–299.
LeonardKE, QuigleyBM. Drinking and marital aggression in newlyweds: an
event-based analysis of drinking and the occurrence of husband marital
aggression. J Stud Alcohol.1999;60:537–545.
59.
TestaM, QuigleyBM, LeonardKE. Does alcohol make a difference?
Within-participants comparison of incidents of partner
violence. J Interpers Violence.2003;18:735–743.
60.
BrecklinLR. The role of perpetrator alcohol use in the injury
outcomes of intimate assaults. J Fam
Violence.2002;17:185–197.
61.
RoomR, BaborT, RehmJ. Alcohol and public health.
Lancet.2005;365:519–530.
62.
ShillingtonAM, CottlerLB, ComptonWM3rd. Is there a relationship between “heavy
drinking” and HIV high risk sexual behaviours among general
population subjects?Int J Addict.1995;30:1453–1478.
WingoodGM, DiClementeRJ, RajA. Adverse consequences of intimate partner abuse among
women in non-urban domestic violence shelters. Am J
Preventative Med.2000;19:270–275.
65.
FieldCA, CaetanoR, NelsonS. Alcohol and violence related cognitive risk factors
associated with the perpetration of intimate partner
violence. J Fam Violence.2004;19:249–253.
66.
CohenMM, MacleanH. Violence against Canadian women. In National
Women's Health Surveillance Report.
JOGC.2003;25:499–504.
67.
LeoneJM, JohnsonMP, CohanCL. Consequences of male partner violence for low
income minority women. J Marriage Fam.2004;66:472–490.
68.
JordanCE. Violence and women's mental health: the pain
unequalled. A two-part special issue. Trauma
Violence Abuse.2009;10:195–197.
69.
JordanCE, CampbellR, FollingstadD. Violence and women's mental health: the impact of
physical, sexual and psychological aggression. Annu
Rev Clin Psychol.2010;6:607–628.
70.
BasileKC, AriasI, DesaiS. The differential association of intimate partner
physical, sexual, psychological, and stalking violence and posttraumatic
stress symptoms in a nationally representative sample of
women. J Trauma Stress.2004;17:413–421.
71.
GoldingJM. Intimate partner violence as a risk factor for mental
disorders: a meta-analysis. J Fam Violence.1999;6:81–95.
72.
BeydounHA, BeydounMA, KaufmanJS. Intimate partner violence against adult women and
its association with major depressive disorder, depressive symptoms and
postpartum depression: a systematic review and
meta-analysis. Soc Sci Med.2012;75:959–975.
73.
AstburyJ, CabralM. Women's mental health: an evidence-based review
[Internet]. Geneva (CH):
World Health Organization;
2000 [cited 2012 May 6]. Available from: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2000/WHO_MSD_MDP_00.1.pdf.
74.
AuCoinK, BeauchampD. Impacts and consequences of victimization, GSS
2004. Canadian Centre for Justice Statistics.
Catalogue no. 85–002-XIE. Ottawa
(ON): Statistics Canada,
Juristat;
2007;27(1).
75.
AfifiTO, MacMillanH, CoxBJ. Mental health correlates of intimate partner
violence in marital relationships in a nationally representative sample of
males and females. J Interpers Violence.2009;24:1398–1417.
76.
EhrensaftMK, MoffittTE, CaspiA. Is domestic violence followed by an increased risk of
psychiatric disorders among women but not men? A longitudinal cohort
study. Am J Psychiatry.2006;163:885–892.
77.
VarcoeC, DickS. intersecting risks of violence and HIV for rural and
Aboriginal women in a neocolonial Canadian context.
J Aborig Health.2008;4:42–52.
78.
MacMillanHL, JamiesonE, WalshCA. First Nation women's mental health:
results from an Ontario Survey. Arch Womens Ment
Health.2008;11:109–115.
79.
SutherlandC, BybeeD, SullivanCM. Beyond bruises and broken bones: the joint effects of
stress and injuries on battered women's health.
Am J Community Psychol.2002;30:609–636.
80.
WeaverT, ResnickH. Toward developing complex multivariate models for
examining intimate partner violence–physical health
relationship. J Interpers Violence.2004;19:1342–1349.
81.
BybeeDL, SullivanCM. The process through which an advocacy intervention
resulted in positive change for battered women over time.
Am J Community Psychol.2002;30:103–132.
DawsonM, Pottie-BungeV, BaldeT. National trends in intimate partner homicides:
explaining declines in Canada 1976–2001.
Violence Against Women.2009;15:276–306.
84.
Pottie-BungeV. National trends in intimate partner homicide, 1974–2000.
Catalogue no. 85–002 [Internet]. Ottawa
(ON): Statistics Canada,
Juristat;
2002;22(5) [cited 2012 May 3].
Available from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/85-002-x/85-002-x/2002005-eng.pdf.
85.
WuV, HuffH, BhandariM. Pattern of physical injury associated with intimate
partner violence in women presenting to the emergency department: a
systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma Violence
Abuse.2010;11:71–82.
WuestJ, Merritt-GrayM, LentB. Patterns of medication use among women survivors
of intimate partner violence. Can J Public
Health.2007;98:460–464.
88.
CherniakD, GrantL, MasonR; IPV Working Group. Society of
Obstetricians and Gynaecologists of Canada (SOGC). Intimate partner violence
consensus statement. JOGC.2005;27(4):365–388.
Social Sexual Issues Committee. SOGC Clinical Practice Guidelines. Article in
English, French.
89.
ShahPS, ShahJ. Knowledge synthesis group on determinants of preterm/LBW
births. Maternal exposure to domestic violence and pregnancy and birth
outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analyses. J
Womens Health (Larchmt).2010;19:2017–2031.
90.
CampbellJ, TorresS, RyanJ. Physical and nonphysical partner abuse and other
risk factors for low birth weight among full term and preterm babies: a
multiethnic case–control study. Am J
Epidemiol.1999;150:714–726.
91.
MurphyCC, ScheiB, MyhrTL. Abuse: a risk factor for low birth weight?
A systematic review and meta-analysis.
CMAJ.2001;164:1567–1567.
92.
GilbertR, WidomCS, BrownK. Burden and consequences of child maltreatment in
high income countries. Lancet.2009;373:68–81.
93.
GilbertR, FlukeJ, O'DonnellM. Child maltreatment: variation in trends and
policies in six developed countries.
Lancet.2012;379:758–772.
94.
KitzmannKM, GraylordNK, Hottar. Child witnesses to domestic violence: a
meta-analytic review. J Consult Clin
Psychol.2003;71:339–352.
95.
EvansSE, DaviesC, DiLilloD. Exposure to domestic violence: a meta-analysis of child
and adolescent outcomes. Aggress Violent
Behav.2008;13:131–140.
96.
DubeSR, AndaRF, FelittiVJ. Exposure to abuse, neglect and household
dysfunction among adults who witnessed intimate partner violence as
children: implications for health and social services.
Violence Vict.2002;17:3–17.
97.
DoumasG, MargolinG, JohnRS. The intergenerational transmission of aggression across
three generations. J Fam Violence.1994;9:157–175.
98.
SchwartzJP, HageSM, BushI. Unhealthy parenting and potential mediators as
contributing factors to future intimate violence: a review of the
literature. Trauma Violence Absue.2006;7:206–221.
99.
StithSM, RosenKH, MiddletonKA. The intergenerational transmission of spuse
abuse: a meta-analysis. J Marriage Fam.2000;62:640–654.
100.
EhrensaftMK, CohenP, BrownJ. Intergenerational transmission of partner
violence: a 20-year prospective study. J Consult
Clin Psychol.2003;71:741–753.
101.
CarrJL, VanDeusenKM. The relationship between family of origin in violence
and dating violence in college men. J Interpers
Violence.2002;17:630–646.
102.
MargolinG. Effects of witnessing violence on
children. In: TrickettPK, SchellenbachCJ, editors. Violence against children in the family and the
community. Washington (DC):
American Psychological Association;
1998. p
57–102.
103.
McCloskeyLA, FigueredoAJ, KossMP. The effects of systematic family violence on
children's mental health. Child Dev.1995;66:1239–1261.
104.
MacMillanHL, WathenCN, JamiesonE. Screening for intimate partner violence in health
care settings: a randomized trial. JAMA.2009;302:493–501.
105.
KlevensJ, KeeR, TrickW. Effect of screening for partner violence on
women's quality of life: a randomized controlled
trial. JAMA.2012;308:681–689.
106.
WathenCN, MacMillanHL. Health care's response to women exposed to
partner violence: moving beyond universal screening.
JAMA.2012;308:712–713.
107.
FederG, RamsayJ, DunneD. How far does screening women for domestic
(partner) violence in different health-care settings meet criteria for a
screening programme? Systematic reviews of nine UK National Screening
Committee criteria. Health Technol Assess.2009;13:iii–iv,
xi–xiii, 1–113, 137–347.
108.
Institute of Medicine.
Clinical preventive services for women: closing the gaps.
Washington (DC): The National
Academies Press; 2011.
109.
NelsonHD, BougatsosC, BlazinaI. Screening women for intimate partner violence: a
systematic review to update the 2004 US Preventive Services Task Force
Recommendation. Ann Intern Med.2012;156:796–808.
110.
Registered Nurses'
Association of Ontario. Woman abuse: screening,
identification, and initial response [guideline supplement].
International affairs & best practice guidelines.
Toronto (ON): Registered
Nurses' Association of Ontario;
2012.
111.
American College of Obstetricians
and Gynecologists. Intimate partner violence.
Committee opinion 518. Obstet Gynecol.2012;119:412–417.
112.
BurkeJG, DenisonJA, GielenAC. Ending intimate partner violence: an application
of the transtheoretical model. Am J Health
Behav.2004;4:28:122–132.
113.
DienemannJ, GlassN, HansonG. The Domestic Violence Survivor Assessment (DVSA):
a tool for individual counseling with women experiencing intimate partner
violence. Issues Ment Health Nurs.2007;8:9113–9125.
114.
FederGS, HutsonM, RamsayJ. Women exposed to intimate partner violence:
expectations and experiences when they encounter health care professionals:
a meta-analysis of qualitative studies. Arch Int
Med.2006;166:22–37.
115.
WalshZ, SwoggerMT, O'ConnorBP. Subtypes of partner violence perpetrators among
male and female psychiatric patients. J Abnorm
Psychol.2010;119:563–574.
116.
FerrisL, McMain-KleinM, SilverJ. Documenting wife abuse: a guide for
physicians. CMAJ.1997;156:1015–1022.
117.
RamsayJ, CarterY, DavidsonL. Advocacy interventions to reduce or eliminate
violence and promote the physical and psychosocial well-being of women who
experience intimate partner abuse. Cochrane Database
Syst Rev.2009;3:CD005043.
118.
KubanyES, HillEE, OwensJA. Cognitive trauma therapy for battered women with
PTSD. J Consult Clin Psychol.2004;72:3–16.
119.
HerrmanH, StewartDE, Diaz-GranadosN. What is resilience?Can J Psychiatry.2011;56:258–265.
120.
HegartyK, TaftA, FederG. Violence between partners: working with the whole
family. BMJ.2008:337:346–351.
121.
DunfordFW. The San Diego Navy experiment: an assessment of
interventions for men who assault their wives. J
Consult Clin Psychol.2000;68:468–476.
122.
LiebermanAF, Van HornP, IppenCG. Toward evidence-based treatment: child–parent
psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence.
J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.2005;44:1241–1248.
123.
LiebermanAF, Ghosh IppenC. Child–parent psychotherapy: 6 month
follow-up of a randomized controlled trial. J Am
Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry.2006;45:913–918.
124.
JourilesEN, McDonaldR, RosenfieldD. Reducing conduct problems among children exposed
to intimate partner violence: a randomized clinical trial examining effects
of Project Support. J Consult Clin Psychol.2009;77:705–717.
125.
SullivanCM, BybeeDI, AllenNE. Findings from a community-based program for battered
women and their children. J Interpers
Violence.2002;17:915–936.
126.
CohenJA, MannarinoAP, IyengarS. Community treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder for
children exposed to intimate partner violence: a randomized controlled
trial. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med.2011;165:16–21.
127.
BybeeB, SullivanCM. Predicting re-victimization of battered women 3 years
after exiting a shelter program. Am J Community
Psychol.2005;36:85–96.
HoltVL, KernicMA, LumleyT. Civil protection orders and risk of subsequent
police-reported violence. JAMA.2002;288:589–594.
130.
WolfeDA, CrocksC, JaffeP. A school-based program to prevent adolescent
dating violence: a cluster randomized trial. Arch
Pediatr Adolesc Med.2009;163:692–699.
131.
RobinsonAL. Reducing repeat victimization among high-risk victims of
domestic violence: the benefits of a coordinated community response in
Cardiff, Wales. Violence Against Women.2006;12:761–788.
132.
RobinsonAL, TregidgaJ. The perceptions of high-risk victims of domestic
violence to a coordinated community response in Cardiff,
Wales. Violence Against Women.2007;13:1130–1148.
133.
TiwariA, LeungWC, LeungTW. A randomized controlled trial of empowerment
training for Chinese abused pregnant women in Hong Kong.
BJOG.2005;112:1249–1256.
134.
KielyM, El-MohandesAA, El-KhorazatyMN. An integrated intervention to reduce intimate
partner violence in pregnancy: a randomized controlled
trial. Obstet Gynecol.2010;115:273–283.
WathenCN, TanakaM, CatalloC. Are clinicians being prepared to care for abused
women? A survey of health professional education in Ontario,
Canada. BMC Med Educ.2009;9:34.
137.
KirmayerLJ, FungK, RousseauC; Canadian Psychiatric Association.
Guidelines for training in cultural psychiatry [position
paper]. Can J Psychiatry.2012;57(3 Insert
1):1–16.
