To describe theoretical weaknesses in the DSM-IV criteria for psychotic disorders and to argue that schizophrenia-like psychosis is a neurobiological syndrome similar to aphasia or apraxia.
Method:
We outline the criteria for the concept of neurobiological syndrome and present supporting evidence for schizophrenia-like psychosis as a neurobiological syndrome.
Results:
There is evidence in the literature to support the hypothesis that schizophrenia-like psychosis is a neurobiological syndrome.
Conclusion:
Conceptualizing schizophrenia-like psychosis as a neurobiological syndrome has important implications for both clinicians and researchers.
KraepelinE.Dementia praecox and paraphrenia. BarclayRMRobertsonGM, editors and translators. Edinburgh: E and S Livingston; 1919.
2.
BatesonGJacksonDHaleyJWeaklandJ.Toward a theory of schizophrenia. Beh Scien1956;1:251–64.
3.
FreudS.Further remarks on the defense-neuropsychoses. In: Collected papers. Volume 2. StracheyJ, editor. London: Hogarth; 1924.
4.
AndreasenNC. Linking mind and brain in the study of mental illnesses: A project for a scientific psychopathology. Science1997; 275:1586–93.
5.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed.Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Association; 1994.
6.
AkbarianSBunneySPotkinWWigalSBHagmanJOSandmanCA, and others. Altered distribution of nicotinamide-adenin dinucleotide phosphatediaphorase cells in frontal lobe of schizophrenics implies disturbances of cortical development. Arch Gen Psychiatry1993;50:169–77.
7.
SeidmanLBukaSGoldsteinJHortonNJRiederROTsuangMT. The relationship of prenatal and perinatal complications to cognitive functioning and age 7 in the New England cohorts of the National Collaborative Perinatal Project. Schizophr Bull2000;26:309–21.
8.
KirchD.Infection and autoimmunity as etiologic factors in schizophrenia: A review and reappraisal. Schizophr Bull1993;19:355–70.
9.
KendlerKDiehlS.The genetics of schizophrenia: A current, genetic-epidemiological perspective. Schizophr Bull1993;19:261–85.
10.
TrimbleM.Can schizophrenia be localized?J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci1991;3:89–93.
PichotP.Nosological models in psychiatry. Br J Psychiatry1994;164:232–40.
13.
MindhamRScaddingJMorganH.McHugh's “a structure for psychiatry at the century's turn-the view from John Hopkins”. Br J Psychiatry1993;163:542–6.
14.
FrankECassanoGShearMRotondoADell O'ssoLMauriM, and others. The spectrum model: A more coherent approach to the complexity of psychiatric symptomatology. CNS Spectrums1998;3:23–34.
15.
MindhamRScaddingJCawleyR.Diagnoses are not diseases. Br J Psychiatry1992;161:686–91.
16.
CrowT.From Kraepelin to Kreschmer leavened by Schneider: The transition from categories of psychosis to dimensions of variation intrinsic to Homo sapiens. Arch Gen Psychiatry1998;55:502–4.
17.
AndreasenNC. The American concept of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull1989;15:519–31.
18.
IwanamiASugiyamaAKurokiNTodaSKatoNNakataniY.Patients with methamphetamine psychosis admitted to a psychiatric hospital in Japan. Acta Psychiatr Scand1994;89:428–32.
19.
SatoMNumachiYHamamuraT.Relapse of paranoid psychotic state in methamphetamine model of schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull1992;18:115–22.
20.
FujiiDEAhmedI.Psychosis secondary to traumatic brain injury. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Beh Neurol1996;9:133–8.
21.
GurejeOBamideleRRajiO.Early brain trauma and schizophrenia in Nigerian patients. Am J Psychiatry1994;151:368–71.
22.
BuckleyP.Substance abuse in schizophrenia: A review. J Clin Psychiatry1998;59:26–30.
23.
BleulerE.Die schizophrenen Geistesstorungen im Lichte langjahriger Kranken und Familiengeschichten. Stuttgart: Thieme; 1972.
24.
SeatonBGoldsteinGAllenD.Sources of heterogeneity in schizophrenia: The role of neuropsychological functioning. Neuropsychol Rev2001;11:45–67.
25.
RemingtonGSKapurS.D2 and 5 HT2 receptor effects of antipsychotics: Bridging basic and clinical findings using PET. J Clin Psychiatry1999;60 (Suppl 10):S15–S19.
26.
HolzerJCBearDM. Behavior in temporal lobe epilepsy. In: SchacterSSchomerD, editors. Comprehensive management and treatment of epilepsy. New York: Academic Press; 1998. p 131–48.
27.
CummingsJL. Cholinesterase inhibitors: A new class of psychotropic compounds. Am J Psychiatry2000;157:4–15.
28.
BensonDFArdilaA.Aphasia: A clinical perspective. New York: Oxford University Press; 1996.
29.
RossE.Affective prosody and the aprosodias. In: MesulamM, editor. Principles of behavioral and cognitive neurology. New York: Oxford University Press; 2000. p 316–31.
30.
AndreasenNCNopoulosPO'LearyDMillerDDWassinkTFlaumM.Defining the phenotype of schizophrenia: Cognitive dysmetria and its neural mechanisms. Biol Psychiatry1999;46:908–20.
31.
FrithCD. The cognitive neuropsychology of schizophrenia. Hove (UK): Erlbaum; 1992.
32.
DuncanGESheitmanBBLiebermanJA. An integrated view of pathophysiologial models of schizophrenia. Brain Res Rev1999;29:250–64.
33.
GoodmanAPardeeA.Molecular neurobiological mechanisms in schizophrenia: Seeking a synthesis. [meeting report 1999 April 11]. Biol Psychiatry2000;48:173–83.
34.
HarrisonPJ. The neuropathology of schizophrenia. A critical review of the data and their interpretation. Brain1999;122:593–624.
35.
ByneWKemetherEJonesLHaroutunianVDavisKL. The neurochemistry of schizophrenia. In: CharneyDSNestlerEJBunneyBS, editors. Neurobiology of mental illness. New York: Oxford University Press; 1999. p 236–49.
36.
CurtisVAvan OsJMurrayRM. The Kraepelinian dichotomy: Evidence from developmental and neuroimaging studies. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci2000;12:398–403.
37.
McAllisterTW. Traumatic brain injury and psychosis: What is the connection?Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry1998;3:211–23.
38.
FujiiDEAhmedI.Psychotic disorder following traumatic brain injury: A conceptual framework. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry2002;7:41–62.
39.
BlackwoodNJHowardRJBentallRPMurrayRM. Cognitive neuropsychiatric models of persecutory delusions. Am J Psychiatry2001;158:527–39.
LisanbySHKohlerCSwansonCLGurRE. Psychosis secondary to brain tumor. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry1998:3:12–21.
42.
FujiiDEAhmedI.Characteristics of psychosis due to traumatic brain injury: An analysis of case studies in the literature. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci2002;14:130–40.
43.
SchatzbergAFPosenerJADeBattistaCKalehzanBMRothschildAJShearPK. Neuropsychological deficits in psychotic versus nonpsychotic major depression and no mental illness. Am J Psychiatry2000;157:1095–100.
44.
FujiiDEAhmedITakeshitaJ.Neuropsychological implications in erotomania: Two case studies. Neuropsychiatry Neuropsychol Beh Neurol1999;12:110–6.
45.
EdelstynNMJOyebodeF.A review of the phenomenology and cognitive neuropsychological origins of the Capgras syndrome. Int J Geriatr Psychiatry1999;14:48–59.
46.
YoungAWRobertsonIHHellawellDJde PauwKWPentlandB.Cotard delusion after brain injury. Psychol Med1992;22:799–804.
47.
CantillonMDe La PuenteAMPalmerBW. Psychosis in Alzheimer's disease. Semin Clin Neuropsychiatry1998;3:34–40.
48.
SachdevP.Schizophrenia-like psychosis and epilepsy: The status of the association. Am J Psychiatry1998;155:325–36.
49.
EliezSBlaseyCMSchmittEJWhiteCDHuDRreissAL. Velocardiofacila sndrome and structural changes in the temporal and mesial temporal regions related to schizophrenia?Am J Psychiatry2001;158:447–53.
50.
SultzerDLMahlerMEMandelkernMACummingsJLVan GorpWGHinkinCH. The relationship between psychiatric symptoms and regional cortical metabolism in Alzheimer's disease. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci1995;7:476–84.
51.
KotrlaKJChackoRCHarperRGJhingranSDoodyR.SPECT findings on psychosis in Alzheimer's disease. Am J Psychiatry1995;152:1470–5.
52.
MellersJDCTooneBKLishmanWA. A neuropsychological comparison of schizophrenia and schizophrenia-like psychosis of epilepsy. Psychol Med2000, 30:325–36.
53.
TurkelSBMillerJHReiffA.Case series: Neuropsychiatric symptoms with pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry2001:482–5.
54.
HonerWGHurwitzTLiDKPalmerMPatyDW. Temporal lobe involvement in multiple sclerosis patients with psychiatric disorders. Arch Neurol1987;44:187–90.
55.
RosseRBCollinsJPFay-McCarthyMAlimTNWyattRJDeutschSI. Phenoemologic comparison of the idiopathic psychosis of schizophrenia and drug-induced cocaine and phencycline psychoses: A retrospective study. Clin Neuropharmacol1994;4:359–69.
56.
JavittDCZukinSR. Recent advances in the phencyclidine model of schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry1991;148:1301–8.
57.
SieverLJKoenigsbergHWHarveyPMitropoulouVLaruelleMAbiDarghamA.Cognitive and brain function in schizotypal personality disorder. Schizophr Res2002;54:157–67.
58.
DickeyCCMcCarleyRWShentonME. The brain in schizotypal personality disorder: A review of structural MRI and CT findings. Harv Rev Psychiatry2002;10:1–15.
59.
TorgersenSEdvardsenJOienPAOnstadSSkneILygrenS, and others. Schizotypal personality disorder inside and outside the schizophrenia spectrum. Schizophr Res2002;54:33–8.
60.
PalmerBWMcClureFSJesteDV. Schizophrenia in late life: Findings challenge traditional concepts. Harv Rev Psychiatry2001;9:51–8.
61.
DrevetsW.Neuroimaging studies of mood disorders. Biol Psychiatry2000:48:813–29.
62.
DuffyJDKantR.Apathy secondary to Neurologic disease. Psychiatr Ann1997;27:39–43.
63.
SachdevPSmithJSCathcartS.Schizophrenia-like psychosis following traumatic brain injury: A chart-based descriptive and case-control study. Psychol Med2001;31:231–9.
64.
FujiiDEAhmedIHishinumaE.A neuropsychological comparison of psychotic disorder following traumatic brain injury, traumatic brain injury without psychotic disorder, and schizophrenia. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci2004;16:295–305.
65.
JesteDHeatonSPaulsenJErcoliLHarrisJHeatonRK. Clinical and neuropsychological comparison of psychotic depression with nonpsychotic depression and schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry1996;153:490–6.
66.
MeltzerHYMatsubaraSLeeJC. Classification of typical and atypical antipsychotic drugs on the basis of dopamine D-1, D-2 and serotonin2 pKi values. J Pharmacol Exp Ther1989;251:238–46.
67.
DavisKLKahnRSKoGDavidsonM.Dopamine in schizophrenia: A review and reconceptualization. Am J Psychiatry1991;148:1474–86.
68.
KapurSSeemanP.Does fast dissociation from the dopamine D2 receptor explain the action of atypical antipsychotics? A new hypothesis. Am J Psychiatry2001;158:360–9.
69.
MaybergHS. Limbic-cortical dysregulation: A proposed model of depression. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci1997;9:471–81.
70.
TsuangMStoneWFaraoneS.Toward reformulating the diagnosis of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry2000:157:1041–50.
71.
HeilmanKMRothiLJ. GonzalezApraxia. In: HeilmanKMValensteinE, editors. Clinical neuropsychology. 4th ed.New York: Oxford University Press; 2003. p 215–35.
