Analysis of the existing literature together with case experience reveals at least 4 implications of culture for the conduct of mental health research. Culture helps define the field of study, assists in identifying research gaps, shapes research paradigms, and supports the evolution of a cosmopolitan view of mental health.
Canadian Task Force on Mental Health Issues Affecting Immigrants and Refugees in Canada. After the door has been opened. Ottawa: Health and Welfare Canada; 1988.
2.
CrossTBazronBDenalsK.Towards a culturally competent system of care. Washington (DC): CASSP Technical Assistance Center; 1989.
3.
US Department of Health and Human Services. Mental Health. Culture, race and ethnicity—a supplement to mental health: A report of the surgeon general. Rockville (MD): US Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Service, Office of the Surgeon General; 2001.
4.
BeiserM.Report of a national workshop sponsored by Health and Welfare Canada research priorities in multiculturalism and mental health. Ottawa (ON): Health and Welfare Canada; 1990.
5.
KleinmanA.Patients and healers in the context of culture. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press; 1980.
6.
LeffJP. Culture and the differentiation of emotional states. Br J Psychiatry1973;123:299–306.
7.
LeffJP. Notions of the emotions. Ment Health Soc1977;4:308–18.
8.
MarsellaA.Depressive experience and disorder across cultures. In: TriandisHCDragunsJ, editors. Handbook of cross-cultural psychology. Volume 6. Boston (MA): Allyn and Bacon; 1979. p 237–89.
9.
ObeyesekereG.Depression, Buddhism, and the work of culture in Sri Lanka. In: KleinmanAGoodB, editors. Culture and depression. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press; 1985. p 134–52.
10.
American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. 4th ed.Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Press; 1994.
11.
BeiserMCargoMWoodburyMA. A comparison of psychiatric disorder in different cultures: Depressive typologies in Southeast Asian refugees and resident Canadians. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res1994;4:157–72.
12.
BeiserMFlemingJA. Measuring psychiatric disorder among Southeast Asian refugees. Psychol Med1986;16:627–9.
13.
DevinsGMBeiserMDionRPelletierLGEdwardsRG. Cross-cultural measurement of psychological well-being: The psychometric equivalence of Cantonese, Vietnamese, and Laotian translations of the Affect Balance Scale. Am J Public Health1997;87:794–9.
14.
LeightonAHLamboTHughesCCLeightonDCMurphyJMMacklinD.Psychiatric disorder among the Yoruba. Ithaca (NY): Cornell University Press; 1963.
15.
MurphyJM. Psychiatric labeling in cross-cultural perspective. Science1976;191:1019–28.
16.
ChapelskiEELamphereJKKaczynskiRLichtenbergPADwyerJW. Structure of a depression measure among American Indian Elders: Confirmatory factor anaylsis of the CES-D Scale, Res Aging1997;19:462–85.
17.
DionRGotowiecABeiserM.Depression and conduct disorder in Native and Non-Native children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry1998;37:7.
18.
CheungFde RiosMF Dobkin. Recent trends in the study of the mental health of Chinese immigrants to the United States. Research in Race and Ethnic Relations1982;3:145–63.
19.
BeiserM.Strangers at the gate: The “Boat People's” first ten years in Canada. Toronto: University of Toronto Press; 1999.
20.
MansonSM. Culture and depression: Discovering variations in the experience of illness. In: LonnerWJMalpassRS, editors. Psychology and culture. Needham (MA): Allyn and Bacon; 1994. p 285–90.
21.
NelsonSMansonSM. Mental health and mental disorder. In: RhoadesER, editor. The health of American Indians and Alaska Natives. Baltimore (MD): Johns Hopkins University Press; 2000. p 311–27.
22.
BeiserMCollombHRavelJLNafzigerC.Systemic blood pressure studies among the Serer of Senegal. J Chronic Dis1976;29:371–81.
23.
BeiserMBenfariRCCollombHRavelJ-L.Measuring psychoneurotic behaviour in cross-cultural surveys. J Nerv Ment Dis1976;163:10–23.
24.
BeiserMBurrWACollombHRavelJL. Pobough Lang in Senegal: Analysis of a deviant behavior in biological and cultural contexts. Soc Psychiatry1974;9:1239.
25.
BeiserMBurrWARavelJLCollombH.Illness of the spirit among the Serer of Senegal. Am J Psychiatry1973;130:881–6.
26.
BeiserM.Ethics in cross-cultural research. In: FoulkesEFWintrobRMWestermeyerJFavazzaAR, editors. Current perspectives in cultural psychiatry. New York: Spectrum Publications; 1977. p 125–39.
27.
DeVosGMinerH.Oasis and casbah—a study in acculturative stress. In: OplerMK, editor. Culture and mental health. New York: MacMillan; 1959.
28.
InkelesASmithDH. Becoming modern: Individual change in six developing countries. Cambridge (MA): Harvard University Press; 1974.
29.
ScotchNA. Sociocultural factors in the epidemiology of Zulu hypertension. Am J Public Health1963;53:1205–13.
30.
PickeringT.Depression, race, hypertension, and the heart. J Clin Hypertens2000;2:410–2.
31.
KriegerNSidneyS.Racial discrimination and blood pressure: The CARDIA study of young black and white adults. Am J Public Health1996;86:1370–8.
32.
KriegerNSidneySCoakleyE.Racial discrimination and skin color in the CARDIA study: Implications for public health research. Am J Public Health1999;88:1308–13.
33.
Zhang-WongJBeiserMZipurskyRBeanG.An investigation of ethnic and gender differences in the pharmacodynamics of haloperidol. Psychiatry Res1998;81:333–9.
34.
Zhang-WongJZipurskyRBeiserMBeanG.Optimal haloperidol dosage in first episode schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry1999;44:164–7.
35.
BeiserMHouF.Poverty and mental health among immigrant and non-immigrant children. Am J Public Health2002;92:220–7.
36.
BeiserMNohSHouFKasparVRummensJ.Southeast Asian refugees' perceptions of racial discrimination in Canada. Canadian Ethnic Studies2001;33(1):46–70.
37.
NohSBeiserMKasparVHouFRummensJ.Perceived racial discrimination, depression, and coping: A study of Southeast Asian refugees in Canada. The Journal of Health and Social Behavior1999;40:193–207.
38.
DeVoretzD, editor. Diminishing returns: The economics of Canada's recent immigration policy. Toronto (ON): CD Howe Institute; 1995.
39.
BeiserMSackWMansonSMRedshirtRDionR.Mental health and the academic performance of First Nations and majority culture children. Am J Orthopsychiatry1998;68:455–67.
40.
BeiserMLanceeWGotowiecASackWRedshirtR.Measuring self-perceived role competence among First Nations and non-native children. Can J Psychiatry1993;38:412–9.
41.
KleinmanA.Neurasthenia and depression: A study of somatization and culture in China. Cult Med Psychiatry1982;6:117–90.
42.
FungK.Alexithymia among Chinese Canadians [Master's thesis]. Toronto (ON): University of Toronto; 2003.
43.
GreenS, editor. The Canadian dictionary of the English language. Toronto (ON): Nelson; 1998.
44.
HancockG.Lords of poverty. London: Macmillan; 1989.
45.
ChamblessDLSandersonWCShohamVBennett-JohnsonSPopeKSCrits-ChristophP, and others. An update on empirically validated therapies. Clin Psychol1996;49:5–18.
