In the United States, the military is the primary channel through which many are able to obtain supports traditionally provided by the welfare state, such as access to higher education, job training, employment, health care, and so on. However, due to the nature of the military as a highly gendered institution, these social welfare functions are not as accessible for women as they are for men. This amounts to a highly gender-biased state spending pattern that subsidizes substantially more human capital development for men than for women, effectively reinforcing women’s subordinate status in the US economy.
AngristJoshua D.1993. The effect of veterans benefits on education and earnings. ILR Review46 (4): 637–52.
3.
AngristJoshua D.1998. Estimating the labor market impact of voluntary military service using social security data on military applicants. Econometrica66 (2): 249–88.
4.
AyersWilliam. 2006. Hearts and minds: Military recruitment and the high school battlefield. Phi Delta Kappan87 (8): 594–99.
5.
BarleyStephen R.1998. Military downsizing and the career prospects of youths. Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science559 (1): 141–57.
6.
BenedictHelen. 2009. The Lonely Soldier: The Private War of Women Serving in Iraq. Boston: Beacon.
BlauFrancine D.KahnLawrence M.2016. The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. The Institute for the Study of Labor Discussion Paper no. 9656. Bonn, Germany: Institute for the Study of Labor. Accessed at: http://ftp.iza.org/dp9656.pdf.
9.
BrowningHarley L.LopreatoSally C.PostonDudley L.Jr.1973. Income and veteran status: Variations among Mexican Americans, Blacks, and Anglos. American Sociological Review38 (1): 74–85.
CohnCarol. 2000. “How can she claim equal rights when she doesn’t have to do as many push-ups as I do?” The framing of men’s opposition to women’s equality in the military. Men and Masculinities3 (2): 131–51.
15.
CooneyRichard T.Jr.SegalMady W.SegalDavid R.FalkWilliam W.2003. Racial differences in the impact of military service on the socioeconomic status of women veterans. Armed Forces and Society30 (1): 53–85.
16.
DichterMelissa E.TrueGala. 2015. “This is the story of why my military career ended before it should have”: Premature separation from military service among US women veterans. Affilia30 (2): 187–99.
EichenbergRichard C.StollRichard J.2012. Gender difference or parallel publics? The dynamics of defense spending opinions in the United States, 1965–2007. Journal of Conflict Resolution56 (2): 331–48.
FolbreNancy. 1994. Who Pays for the Kids? Gender and the Structures of Constraint. New York: Taylor & Francis.
23.
From Cold War to Cold Peace. 1949. Business Week, February12: 19–20.
24.
GentilucciEleonora. 2019. US military spending: A perspective on the restructuring dynamics of the defense sector. Review of Radical Political Economics51 (4): 606–28.
25.
GiffordBrian. 2006. The camouflaged safety net: The US armed forces as welfare state institution. Social Politics13 (3): 372–99.
26.
GoldsteinJoshua S.2001. War and Gender. New York: Cambridge University Press.
HardisonChaitra M.HosekSusan D.SaavedraAnna Rosefsky. 2018. Establishing Gender-Neutral Physical Standards for Ground Combat Occupations: A Review of the Military Services’ Methods. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
29.
HelmusTodd C.ZimmermanS. RebeccaPosardMarek N.WheelerJasmine L.OgletreeCordayeStroudQuintonHarrellMargaret C.2018. Life as a Private: A Study of the Motivations and Experiences of Junior Enlisted Personnel in the US Army. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
30.
IskraDarlene. M.2010. Women in the US Armed Forces: A Guide to the Issues. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
31.
KamarckKristy N.2019. Diversity, Inclusion, and Equal Opportunity in the Armed Services: Background and Issues for Congress. Congressional Research Service Report no. R44321. Accessed at: https://fas.org/sgp/crs/natsec/R44321.pdf.
32.
KellerKirsten M.HallKimberly CurryMatthewsMiriamPayneLeslie AdrienneSaum-ManningLisaYeungDouglasSchulkerDavidZavislanStefanLimNelson. 2018. Addressing Barriers to Female Officer Retention in the Air Force. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
33.
KleykampMeredith A.2006. College, jobs, or the military? Enlistment during a time of war. Social Science Quarterly87 (2): 272–90.
34.
KleykampMeredith A.2009. A great place to start? The effect of prior military service on hiring. Armed Forces and Society35 (2): 266–85.
35.
KleykampMeredith A.2010. Women’s Work after War. Upjohn Institute Working Paper no. 10–169. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute for Employment Research. Accessed at: https://research.upjohn.org/up_workingpapers/169/.
36.
KleykampMeredith A.2013. Unemployment, earnings, and enrollment among post-9/11 veterans. Social Science Research42 (3): 836–51.
37.
LeimgruberMatthieu. 2010. Protecting soldiers, not mothers: Soldiers’ income compensation in Switzerland during World War II. Social Politics17 (1): 53–79.
38.
ListerRuth. 2001. Citizenship and gender. In The Blackwell Companion to Political Sociology, eds. NashKateScottAlan, 323–31. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
LundquistJenniferXuZhun. 2014. Reinstitutionalizing families: Life course policy and marriage in the military. Journal of Marriage and Family76 (5): 1063–81.
41.
MangumStephen L.BallDavid E.1989. The transferability of military-provided occupational training in the post-draft era. ILR Review42 (2): 230–45.
42.
MaruskaJennifer Heeg. 2009. When are states hypermasculine? In Gender and International Security, ed. SjobergLaura, 253–73. New York: Routledge.
43.
McCronePaulKnappMartinCawkillPaul. 2003. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)in the Armed Forces: Health economic considerations. Journal of Traumatic Stress16 (5): 519–22.
44.
MehayStephen L.HirschBarry T.1996. The postmilitary earnings of female veterans. Industrial Relations35 (2): 197–217.
MillerLaura L.1997. Not just weapons of the weak: Gender harassment as a form of protest for army men. Social Psychology Quarterly60 (1): 32–51.
48.
MoonSeungsook. 1998. Gender, militarization, and universal male conscription in South Korea. In The Women and War Reader, eds. LorentzenLois AnnTurpinJennifer, 90–100. New York: New York University Press.
49.
MoskosCharles C.Jr.1977. From institution to occupation: Trends in military organization. Armed Forces and Society4 (1): 41–50.
50.
NayakMeghana. 2006. Orientalism and “saving” US state identity after 9/11. International Feminist Journal of Politics8 (1): 42–61.
51.
OECD. 2020. General government spending (indicator) (doi:10.1787/a31cbf4d-en); Social spending (indicator) (doi:10.1787/7497563b-en); Public spending on education (indicator) (doi:10.1787/f99b45d0-en).
PhillipsRobert L.AndrisaniPaul J.DaymontThomas N.GilroyCurtis L.1992. The economic returns to military service: Race-ethnic differences. Social Science Quarterly73 (2): 340–59.
58.
ProkosAnastasiaPadavicIrene. 2000. Earn all that you can earn: Income differences between women veterans and non-veterans. Journal of Political and Military Sociology28 (1): 60–74.
59.
RoseNancy E.2000. Scapegoating poor women: An analysis of welfare reform. Journal of Economic Issues34 (1): 143–57.
60.
SampsonRobert J.LaubJohn H.1996. Socioeconomic achievement in the life course of disadvantaged men: Military service as a turning point, circa 1940–1965. American Sociological Review61 (3): 347–67.
Sasson-LevyOrna. 2011. Research on gender and the military in Israel: From a gendered organization to inequality regimes. Israel Studies Review26 (2): 73–98.
63.
Sasson-LevyOrnaAmram-KatzSarit. 2007. Gender integration in Israeli officer training: Degendering and regendering the military. Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society33 (1): 105–33.
64.
SegalMady W.SegalDavid R.BachmanJerald G.Freedman-DoanPeterO’MalleyPatrick M.1998. Gender and the propensity to enlist in the US military. Gender Issues16 (3): 65–87.
TeachmanJayCallVaughn R.1996. The effect of military service on educational, occupational, and income attainment. Social Science Research25 (1): 1–31.
71.
TeachmanJayTedrowLucky. 2007. Joining up: Did military service in the early all-volunteer era affect subsequent civilian income?Social Science Research36 (4): 1447–74.
US Department of Defense (DoD). 2013. DoD Diversity and Inclusion: 2013 Summary Report. Washington, DC: DoD Office of Diversity Management and Equal Opportunity (ODMEO).
74.
US Department of Defense (DoD). 2015. Profile of the Military Community: 2015 Demographics. Washington, DC: DoD, Office of the Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Military Community and Family Policy (ODASD MCandFP).
VickBrandonFontanellaGabrielle. 2017. Gender, race and the veteran wage gap. Social Science Research61: 11–28.
77.
Walton RadfordAlexandriaBentzAlexanderDekkerRemmertPaslovJonathan. 2016. After the post-9/11 GI Bill: A Profile of Military Service Members and Veterans Enrolled in Undergraduate and Graduate Education. Stats in Brief NCES 2016-435. Washington, DC: US Department of Education. Accessed at: https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2016/2016435.pdf.
78.
WangLinElderGlen H.Jr.SpenceNaomi J.2012. Status configurations, military service and higher education. Social Forces91 (2): 397–422.
79.
XieYu. 1992. The socioeconomic status of young male veterans, 1964–1984. Social Science Quarterly73 (2): 379–96.
80.
YeungDouglasSteinerChristina E.HardisonChaitra M.HanserLawrence M.KamarckKristy N.2017. Recruiting Policies and Practices for Women in the Military: Views from the Field. Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation.
