In this study, development experiences toward economic development are investigated to provide an alternative analysis of economic development, human capital, and genetic inheritance in the light of consanguineous marriages. The countries analyzed in the study are discussed in accordance with consanguineous marriage practices and classified by their per capita gross domestic product (GDP) growth. A broad range of countries are analyzed in the study. Arab countries that experienced high rates of growth in their gross national income during the twentieth century but failed to fulfill adequate development measures as reflected in the growth in national income, countries undergoing transition from tight government regulation to free market democracy, and African nations that have experienced complications in the process of development show important differences in the process of economic development. It is shown that the countries that have reached high average development within the context of per capita GDP have overcome problems integral to consanguineous marriage.
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ibid. Givens and Hirschman, R. Hussain and A.H. Bittles (1998), R. Jurdi and P.C. Saxena, S.A. Khoury, and D. Massad, ‘‘Consanguineous Marriage in Jordan,’’American Journal of Medical Genetics43 (1992): 769-75.
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12.
T. Bulutay , ‘‘Development and Growth,’’İktisat, İşletme ve Finans214 (2004): 5-91 (in Turkish).
13.
C. Levi-Strauss, The Elementary Structures of Kinship (Boston: Beacon Press, 1969).
14.
One should note that first and second degree consanguineous marriages are the marriages to be considered most problematic. Consanguineous marriages in Europe are mostly toward sixth degree of cousin marriages. However, the consanguineous marriages that we considered most problematic had been banned in Europe starting from sixteenth century. A.H. Bittles and I. Egerbladh, ‘‘The Influence of Past Endogamy and Consanguinity on Genetic Disorders in Northern Sweden,’’Annals Human Genetics69 (2005): 1-10.
15.
The structure of consanguity among nobles was pointed out to the public’s notice in the New York Times, in September 14, 1902, the article ‘‘To Stop Consanguineous Marriages,’’ ‘‘In Austria you find Princess Maria Valerie, daughter of the Emperor Francis Joseph, married to her cousin, the Arch-duke Salvator. In Great Britain, Queen Victoria married her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Cobourg-Gotha. Princes Maud, daughter of Edward VII, married her first cousin, Prince Charles of Denmark, son of the Royal Prince of Denmark, who is the brother of the Queen of England. In Russia, the Grand Duke Alexander Michailowitch married the Grand Duchess Xenie Alexandrowna, his cousin and sister of Nicholas II. Prince Henry of Prussia, brother of William II, married his cousin, a Princess of Hesse, and the Grand Duke of Hesse married his cousin, the daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Cobourg.’’ A. Kuper, ‘‘Incest, Cousin Marriage, and the Origin of the Human Sciences in Nineteenth-Century England,’’ The Past and Present Society 174 (2002): 158-83.
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Ibid., Kuper, 178.
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L. Greenfeld , The Spirit of Capitalism: Nationalism and Economic Growth. (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
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E.L. Glaeser , ‘‘Cities, Information, and Economic Growth,’’Cityscape1 (1994): 9-77.
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24.
N. Basaran, Medical Genetics (Istanbul: Istanbul University Press, 1994) (in Turkish).
25.
R.L. Nussbaum, R.R. McInnes, and F.H. Willard, Thompson & Thompson Genetics in Medicine, 6th ed (Turkey: Günes,2005) (in Turkish).
26.
M.K. Bhasin and S. Nag, ‘‘Consanguinity and Its Effects on Fertility and Child Survival Among Muslims of Ladakh in Jammu and Kashmir,’’Anthropologist Special Issue, no. 1 ( 2002): 131-40.
27.
R. Chakraborty and A. Chakravarti, ‘‘On Consanguineous Marriages and the Genetic Load,’’Human Genetics36 (1977): 47-54.
28.
Ibid. Bitles (2003), 571-6.
29.
World Health Organization Report (1999).
30.
A. Al-Ansari, ‘‘Etiology of Mild Mental Retardation among Bahraini Children: A Community-Based Case Control Study,’’ Mental Retardation 31 (1993): 140-43; S. M. Becker, Zohair Al Halees, Corazon Molina, and Richard M. Paterson, ‘‘Consanguinity and Congenital Heart Disease in Saudi Arabia,’’ American Journal of Medical Genetics 199 (2001): 8-13; A. Bener and R. Hussain, ‘‘Consanguineous Unions and Child Health in the State of Qatar,’’ Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 20 (2006): 372-8; L. E. Dorsten, L. Hotchkiss, and T. M. King, ‘‘The Effect of Inbreeding on Early Childhood Mortality: Twelve Generations of an Amish Settlement,’’ Demography 36 (1999): 263-71; J. C. Grant, and A. H. Bittles, ‘‘The Comparative Role of Consanguinity in Infant and Child Mortality in Pakistan,’’ Annals of Human Genetics 61 (1997); 143-9; R. Hussain, A. H. Bittles, and S. G. Sullivan, ‘‘Early Childhood Mortality in Muslim Populations of India and Pakistan,’’ American Journal of Human Biology 13 (2001): 177-187; L. Jaber, P. Merlob, R. Gabriel, and M. Shohat, ‘‘Effects of consanguineous marriage on Reproductive Outcome in an Arab Community in Israel,’’ Journal of Medical Genetics 34 (1997): 1000-1002; M. L. Kulkarni and M. Kurian, ‘‘Consanguinity and its Effect on Fetal Growth and Development: A South Indian Study,’’ Journal of Medical Genetics 27 (1990): 348-52; J. Pedersen, ‘‘The Influence of Consanguineous Marriage on Infant and Child Mortality among Palestinians in the West Bank and Gaza, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria,’’ Community Genetics 5 (2002): 178-81; Maroun L. Salim Abu-Rabia, ‘‘The Effect of Consanguineous Marriage on Reading Disability in the Arab Community,’’ Dyslexia 11 (2004): 1-21; C. Stoltenberg,, ‘‘Influence of Consanguinity and Maternal Education on Risk of Stillbirth and Infant Death in Norway, 1967-1993,’’ American Journal of Epidemiology 148 (1998): 452-59; C. Stoltenberg, P. Magnus, A. Skrondal, and R. T. Lie, ‘‘Consanguinity and Recurrence Risk of Stillbirth and Infant Death,’’ American Journal Public Health 89 (1999): 517-23; A. Wahab and M. Ahmad, ‘‘Biosocial Perspectives of Consanguineous Marriages in Rural and Urban Swat, Pakistan,’’ Journal of Biosocial Science 28 (1996): 305-13; J. Zlotogora, ‘‘Genetic Disorders among Palestinian Arabs: 1. Effects of consanguinity,’’ American Journal of Medical Genetics 68 (1997): 472-5.
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L. I. Al-Gazali, L. Sztriha, A. Dawodu, M. Bakir, M. Varghese, E. Varady, J. Scorer, Y. M. Abdulrazzaq, A. Bener, and R. Padmanabhan, ‘‘Pattern of Central Nervous System Anomalies in a Population with a High Rate of Consanguineous Marriages,’’ Clinical Genetics 55 (1999): 95-102; Afzal M. Badaruddoza and M. Akhtaruzzaman, ‘‘Inbreeding and Congenital Heart Disease in North India Population,’’ Clinical Genetics 45 (1994): 288-91; Afzal M. Badaruddoza and M. Ali, ‘‘Effect of Inbreeding on Gestational Period and Anthropometric Measurements at Birth in North India,’’ Indian Journal of Human Genetics 1 (1995): 117-22.
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34.
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35.
Ibid., Becker (1993).
36.
Ibid., Plomin and Petrill (1997).
37.
Ibid., McClearn et. al.
38.
Ibid., Plomin and Petrill, McClearn et al., Hamer and Copeland, Hamer and Copeland, Living with Our Genes (New York: Doubleday, 1998).
39.
Ibid., Plomin and Petrill, McClearn et al.
40.
O. C. Ashenfelder and C. E. Rouse, Scholling, Intelligence, and Income in America: Cracks in the Bell Curve, NBER Working Paper No. W6902 (1999): 1-43; Jere R. Behrman, M. R. Rosenzweig, and P. Taubman, ‘‘Endowments and the Allocation of Schooling in the Family and in the Marriage Market: The Twins Experiment,’’ Journal of Political Economy 102 (1994): 1131-74; R. Plomin and C. S. Bergeman, ‘‘The Nature of Nurture: Genetic Influence on ‘Environmental’ Measures,’’ Behavioral and Brain Sciences 14 (1991): 373-427.
41.
J. Behrman and P. Taubman, ‘‘Is Schooling ‘‘Mostly in the Genes?’’ Nature-Nurture, Decomposition Using Data on Relatives,’’Journal of Political Economy97 (1989): 1425-46.
42.
R. Plomin and C.S. Bergeman, ‘‘The Nature of Nurture: Genetic Influence on ‘Environmental’ Measures,’’Behavioral and Brain Sciences14 (1991): 373-427.
43.
R. Dawkins, The Selfish Gene (London: Oxford Press, 1976); Hamer and Copeland, McClearn et al., ‘‘Substantial Genetic Influence on Cognitive Abilities in Twins 80 or more Years Old,’’ Science 276 (1997): 1560-3.
44.
J. Flynn, ‘‘Massive IQ Gains in 14 Nations: What IQ Tests Really Measure,’’Psychological Bulletin101 ( 1987): 171-91; C. Wills, Children of Prometheus: Accelerating Pace of Human Evolution ( New York: Perseus Books, 1998).
45.
G. Jones and J. Schneider, ‘‘Intelligence, Human Capital, and Economic Growth: An Extreme Bounds Analysis,’’Econometric Society Latin American Meetings156 (2004), Ibid., R. Lynn and T. Vanhanen.
46.
Ibid., T. Bulutay and S. Fischer, ‘‘Globalization and its Challenges,’’ The American Economic Review 93 (2003): 11-3; J. A. Frankel and D. Romer, ‘‘Does Trade Cause Growth?’’ American Economic Review 89 (1999): 379-99; J. Helliwell, ‘‘Demographic Changes and International Factor Mobility,’’ In Global Demographic Change: Economic Impacts and Policy Challenges. Symposium sponsored, August 26-28, 2004, 369-420; D. Rodrik, ‘‘Where Did All the Growth Go? External Shocks, Social Conflict, and Growth Collapses,’’ Journal of Economic Growth 4 (1999): 385-412; A. Vamvakidis, ‘‘How Robust is the Growth-Openness Connection? Historical Evidence,’’ Journal of Economic Growth 7 (2002): 57-80.
47.
J.H. Boeke, Economics and Economic Policy of Dual Societies (New York : Institute of Pacific Relations, 1953).
48.
Gary S. Fields, ‘‘Rural-Urban Migration, Urban Unemployment and Underemployment and Job Search Activity in LDCs,’’Journal of Development Economics2 (1975): 165-88; J. Harris and M. Todaro, ‘‘Migration, Unemployment and Development: A Two-Sector Analysis,’’American Economic Review40 (1970): 126-42; Ibid., W. A. Lewis (1954): 139-91.
49.
D.E.W. Harrison, Common Prayer in the Church of England (London: S.P.C.K, 1969).
50.
Richard L. Burtsell , ‘‘Consanguinity (in Canon Law),’’The Catholic Encyclopedia.
51.
C. R. Darwin to H. E. Litchfield (H. E. Darwin), February 10, 1872, Letter 9033-W. W. Reade to C. R. Darwin, August 29, 1873, Letter 9417-G. H. Darwin to C. R. Darwin, April 18, 1874, See C. Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life (London: John Murray, 1859).
52.
For Sweeden, Ibid., Bittles and Egerbladh, see for Consanguineous Marriage Prohibitions, M. Ottenheimer , Forbitten Relatives (Champaign, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1996).
53.
U. Bigozzi, C. Conti, R. Guazzelli, E. Montali, and F. Salti, ‘‘Morbilita e Mortalita Nella Prole di Coppie di Coniugi Consanguinei Nel Commune di Firenze,’’ Acta Genetica Medica Gemellologiae 19 (1970): 515-28; T. Romanus, ‘‘Frequency of Consanguineous Relations Among Applications for Legal Abortion and Among Their Parents,’’ Acta Genetica et Statistica Medica 4 (1953): 266-73.
54.
M. Fraccaro , ‘‘A Note on Consanguineous Marriages in Italy,’’Eugenics Quarterly4 (1957): 36-9.
55.
J. Sutter and L. Tabah, ‘‘Fréquence et Nature des Anomalies dans les Familles Consanguines,’’Population9 ( 1954): 425-50; J. Sutter and M. Goux, ‘‘L’evolution de la Consanguinité en France de 1926 à 1958 avec des Donnes Recéntes Detailles,’’Population17 (1964): 683-702.
56.
Y. Imaizumi , N. Shinozaki, and H. Aoki, ‘‘Inbreeding in Japan: Results of a Nation-wide Study,’’Japanese Journal of Human Genetics20 (1975): 91-107; Ibid., Y. Imaizumi (1986).
57.
J. Glinka, Consanguineous Marriage. In Culture, Gospel and Church, ed. P. F. Gesch, (Madang: Divine World Mission, 1994), 92-99 (for Indonesia); Stevenson, et.all, ‘‘Congenital Malformations: a Report of a Study of Series of Consecutive Births in 24 Centres,’’ Bulletin of the World Health Organization 34 (1966): 1-125 (for Malaysia).
58.
Ibid., Stevenson et al.
59.
J. Zhan, W. Qin, Y. Zhou, K. Chen, W. Yan, and W. Yu, ‘‘Effects of Consanguineous Marriages on Hereditary Diseases: A Study of the Han Ethnic Group in Different Geographic Districts of Zejiang Province,’’ National Medical Journal of China 172 (1992): 674-6 (in Chinese); X. Yang, L. Zhou, L. Zhou, Z. Jiang, and F. Li, ‘‘A Study of Consanguineous Marriage and Hereditary Effects in the Mong People in China,’’ National Medical Journal of China 11 (1994): 246-7 (in Chinese); W. Wang, C. Qian, and A. H. Bittles, ‘‘Consanguineous Marriage in PR China: a Study in Rural Man (Manchu) Communities,’’ Annals of Human Biology 29 (2002): 685-90.
60.
See R. Hussain , ‘‘The Prevalence and Demographic Characteristics of Consanguineous Marriages in Pakistan,’’Journal of Biosocial Science30 ( 1998): 261-75.
61.
R. Hussain and A.H. Bittles, ‘‘Sociodemographic Correlates of Consanguineous Marriage in the Muslim Population of India,’’Journal of Biosocial Science32 (2000): 433-42; F. Huq , ‘‘Consanguinity and Inbreeding among the Muslims of Murshidabad and Birbhum Districts of West Bengal,’’Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society11 (1976): 21-25.
62.
Ibid., Surender (1998), Imaizumi (1986a, 1986b); A. Nath, C. Patil, and V. A. Naik, ‘‘Prevalence of Consanguineous Marriages in a Rural Community and its Effect on Pregnancy Outcome,’’ Indian Journal of Community Medicine 29 (2004): 41-3; G. Kumaramanickavel, B. Joseph, A. Vidhya, T. Arokiasamy, and N. Shridhara Shetty,’’Consanguinity and Ocular Genetic Diseases in South India: Analysis of a Five-Year Study,’’ Community Genetics 5 (2002): 182-5; O. S. El-Alfi, Y. Shaker, R. Shaath, and T. Abdul Salam, ‘‘Congenital Malformations in Kuwait,’’ Journal of the Kuwait Medical Association 2 (1968): 99-108; O. S. El-Alfi, A. h. Bahig, T. Abdul Salam, and R. Shaath, ‘‘Birth Weights in Kuwait, and their Relation to Consanguinity and to Birth Order,’’ Journal of the Kuwait Medical Association 3 (1969): 227-31; M. Khlat, ‘‘Social Correlates of Consanguineous Marriages in Beirut: A Population-Based Study,’’ Human Biology 60 (1988): 541-8.
63.
S. A. Shami and I. B. Minhas, ‘‘Effects of Consanguineous Marriages on Offspring Mortality in the City of Jhelum (Punjab), Pakistan,’’ Biologia 30 (1984): 153-65; M. Yaqoob, K.-H. Gustavson, F. Jalili, J. Karlberg, and L. Iselius, ‘‘Early child death in Lahore, Pakistan: II. Inbreeding,’’ Acta Paediatrica Scandinavica 390 (1993): 17-26; T. Ahmed, S. M. Ali, A. Aliaga, F. Arnold, M. Ayub, M. H. Bhatti et al. Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 1990/9 (Islamabad and Columbia, MD: Pakistan National Institute of Population Studies and Macro International, 1992); S. A. Shami and Zahida, ‘‘Study of Consanguineous Marriages in the Population of Lahore (Punjab), Pakistan,’’ Biologia 28 (1982): 1-15; T. Ahmed, S. M. Ali, A. Aliaga, F. Arnold, M. Ayub, M. H. Bhatti et al., Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 1990/91 (Islamabad and Columbia, MD: Pakistan National Institute of Population Studies and Macro International, 1992).
64.
T. Ahmed, S.M. Ali, A. Aliaga, F. Arnold, M. Ayub, and M.H. Bhatti, Pakistan Demographic and Health Survey 1990/91 (Islamabad and Columbia, MD: Pakistan National Institute of Population Studies and Macro International, 1992); R. Hussain , ‘‘The Prevalence and Demographic Characteristics of Consanguineous Marriages in Pakistan,’’Journal of Biosocial Science30 ( 1998): 261-75.
65.
A. Wahab, M. Ahmad, and S.A. Shah, ‘‘Migration as a Determinant of Marriage Pattern: Preliminary Report on Consanguinity Among Afghans,’’Journal of Biosocial Science38 (2006): 315-25; for more information and data, see appendix.
66.
L. I. Al-Gazali, A. Bener, Y. M. Abdulrazzaq, R. Micallef, A. I. Al-Khayat, and T. Gaber, ‘‘Consanguineous Marriages in the United Arab Emirates,’’ Journal of Biosocial Science 29 (1997): 491-7; A. A. Gunaid, N. A. Hummad, and K. A. Tamim, ‘‘Consanguineous Marriage in the Capital City Sana’a, Yemen,’’ Journal of Biosocial Science 36 (2004): 111-21; Ibid., M. Khlat (1988): 541-8; F. Khuri, ‘‘Parallel Cousin Marriage Reconsidered: A Middle Eastern Practice that Nullifies the Effects of Marriage on the Intensity of Family Relationships,’’ Man 5 (1970): 59.
67.
Ibid., Jurdi and Saxena.
68.
For Saudi Arabia see, Ibid., Al-Abdulkerem, A. A. Al-Abdulkareem, and S. G. Ballal, ‘‘Consanguinity Marriages in an Urban Area of Saudi Arabia: Rates and Adverse Health Effects on the Offspring,’’ Journal of Community Health 23 (1998): 75-83; M. Al-Hussein and Al-Bunyan, ‘‘Consanguineous Marriages in a Saudi Population and the Effect of Inbreeding on Prenatal and Postnatal Mortality,’’ Annals of Tropical Paediatrics 17 (1997): 155-60, for more information see appendix.
69.
Ibid., Al-Abdulkareem and Ballal; M. Al-Husain and M. Al-Bunyan; M. I. El-Mouzan, A. A. Al-Salloum, A. S. Al-Herbish, M. M. Qurachi, and A. A. Al-Omar, ‘‘Regional Variations in the Prevalence of Consanguinity in Saudi Arabia,’’ Saudi Medical Journal 28 (2007): 1881-4; M. A. F. El-Hazmi, A. R. Al-Swailem, A. S. Warsy, A. M. Al-Swailem, R. Sulaimani, and A. A. Al-Meshari, ‘‘Consanguinity among the Saudi Arabian Population,’’ Journal of Medical Genetics 52 (1995): 623-6.
70.
H. Hamamy, S. Al-Hait, A. Alwan, and K. Ajlouni, ‘‘Communities and Community Genetics,’’Community Genetics10 (2007): 52-60.
71.
A. Bener and R. Hussain, ‘‘Consanguineous Unions and Child Health in the State of Qatar,’’Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology20 (2006): 372-8; A. Bener and K.A. Alali, ‘‘Consanguineous Marriage in a Newly Developed Country: The Qatari Population,’’Journal of Biosocial Science38 ( 2006): 239-46.
72.
Ibid., Surender (1998); Imaizumi (1986a, 1986b); A. Nath, C. Patil, and V. A. Naik, ‘‘Prevalence of Consanguineous Marriages in a Rural Community and its Effect on Pregnancy Outcome,’’ Indian Journal of Community Medicine 29 (2004): 41-3; G. Kumaramanickavel, B. Joseph, A. Vidhya, T. Arokiasamy, and N. Shridhara Shetty, ‘‘Consanguinity and Ocular Genetic Diseases in South India: Analysis of a Five-Year Study,’’ Community Genetics 5 (2002): 182-5; O. S. El-Alfi, Y. Shaker, R. Shaath, and T. Abdul Salam, ‘‘Congenital Malformations in Kuwait,’’ Journal of the Kuwait Medical Association 2 (1968): 99-108; O. S. El-Alfi, A. h. Bahig, T. Abdul Salam, and R. Shaath, ‘‘Birth Weights in Kuwait, and their Relation to Consanguinity and to Birth Order,’’ Journal of the Kuwait Medical Association 3 (1969): 227-31; M. Khlat, ‘‘Social Correlates of Consanguineous Marriages in Beirut: A Population-Based Study,’’ Human Biology 60 (1988): 541-8.
73.
J. Zlotogora, H. Habiballa, A. Odatalla, and S. Barges, ‘‘Changing Family Structure in a Modernizing Society: A Study of Marriage Patterns in a Single Muslim Village in Israel,’’ American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 680-2; S. Assaf and M. Khawaja, ‘‘Consanguinity Trends and Correlates in the Palestinian Territories,’’ Journal of Biosocial Science 41 (2009): 107-24; L. Jaber et al. ‘‘Consanguineous Matings in an Israeli-Arab Community,’’ Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine 148 (1994): 412-5.
74.
J. Bashi, ‘‘Effects of Inbreeding on Cognitive Performance,’’ Nature 266 (1977): 440-2; see more for information Goldschmidt et al., ‘‘Changing Marriage System in the Jewis Communities in Israel,’’ Annals of Human Genetics 24 (1960): 191-204; J. Tsafrir and I. Halbrecht, ‘‘Consanguinity and Marriage Systems in the Jewish Community in Israel,’’ Annals of Human Genetics 35 (1972): 343-7.
75.
M. Khlat, ‘‘Consanguineous marriage and reproduction in Beirut, Lebanon,’’ American Journal of Human Genetics 43 (1988): 188-96; E. Tuncbilek and M. Ulusoy, ‘‘Consanguinity in Turkey in 1988,’’ Turkish Journal of Population Studies 11 (1989): 35-46; I. Koc, ‘‘Prevalence and Socio-demographic Correlates of Consanguineous Marriages in Turkey,’’ Journal of Biosocial Science 40 (2008): 137-48.
76.
Ibid., R.-B. Du, Z.-L. Zhao, L.-J. Xu, Y.-F. Wang, W.-Y. Cui, Z.-R. Mao; Ibid J. Zhan, W. Qin, Y. Zhou, K. Chen, W. Yan, and W. Yu, Ibid., W. Wang, C. Qian, and A. H. Bittles, Ibid., Q. Ai, Haligamu, Q. Ke, J. Tong, B. Zhang, Z. Wang, and Y. Jiang.
77.
L. Wu, ‘‘Investigation of Consanguineous Marriages among 30 Chinese Ethnic Groups,’’ Heredity and Disease 4 (1987): 163-66 (in Chinese); Stevenson et al. ‘‘Congenital Malformations: A Report of a Study of Series of Consecutive Births in 24 Centres,’’ Bulletin of the World Health Organization 34 (1966): 1-125; A. Czeilel, L. Bodnar, G. Illei, and A. Molnar, ‘‘The Occurrence of Consanguineous Marriages in Hungary,’’ Human Heredity 26 (1976): 110-12.
78.
K. Hampshire , R. Smith, and T. Malcolm, ‘‘Consanguineous Marriage among the Fulani,’’Human Biology73 (2001): 597-603.
79.
P. Chantrelle and M. Dupire, ‘‘L’endogamie des peul du Fouta-Djallon,’’Population19 (1964): 529-58.
80.
A.B. Scott-Emuakpor , ‘‘The Mutation loAd in an African Population. I. An Analysis of Consanguineous Marriages in Nigeria,’’American Journal of Human Genetics26 (1974): 674-82.
81.
F. M. Badr, ‘‘Genetic Studies of Egyptian Nubian Population, Frequency and Types of Consanguineous Marriages,’’ Human Heredity 22 (1972): 387-98; Z. Habib and J. A. Böök, ‘‘Consanguinity and the Incidence of Thalassaemia in Egypt,’’ Hereditas 99 (1983): 215-7; M. Hafez, H. El-Tahan, M. Awadalla, H. El-Khayat, A. Abdel-Gafar, and M. Ghoneim, ‘‘Consanguineous Matings in the Egyptian Population,’’ Journal of Medical Genetics 20 (1983): 58-60.
82.
A.H. Ahmed , ‘‘Consanguinity and Schizophrenia in Sudan,’’British Journal of Psychiatry134 (1979): 635-6.
83.
N. Saha and F. S. El Sheikh, ‘‘Inbreeding Levels in Khartoum,’’Journal of Biosocial Science20 ( 1988): 333-6.
