Abstract
A Large-Scale Test of the Reality Constraint and Ingroup Bias Accounts of Women's Support for Male Privilege
Chuma Kevin Owuamalam, Luca Caricati, and Chiara Bonetti
Abstract
Why do women sometimes support systems of male privilege that clearly undercut the interests of their gender group? According to some explanations from the social identity model of system attitudes, they do so: (a) due to a preference for their country's ways of doing things (i.e., a bias in favor of their superordinate ingroup) and (b) because the incontrovertible reality of gender inequality in their society makes it difficult to challenge it (i.e., social reality constraint). Using a nationally representative dataset of 157,019 women from 91 nations that spanned close to four decades, we found supportive evidence for these two propositions. Moreover, both explanations interact, in that the superordinate ingroup bias explanation was visible only when social reality constraints were weak. Additionally, even women with nontraditional worldviews increased their support for male privilege when the constraint imposed by the gender reality in their society was high. In short, women support male privilege to the extent that (a) they feel proud of their society's traditions, and (b) it is the reality in their country. These findings are useful for activists because they shed important light on the psychological and systemic barriers to overcome when seeking women's participation in rallies against gender inequality. Additional online materials for this article are available on PWQ's website at http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843231176222.
Practice Implications
Despite the foregoing caveats, it is nonetheless useful to contemplate the practice implications of the trends that we found in the current study. Our results show that the powerful forces of socially shared realities can sometime compel women to passively support societal traditions that inadvertently place their gender group at a disadvantage relative to men. Beyond the constraints imposed by the reality in which women operate, our results also indicate that a conservative political orientation and/or positive attachment to the wider society could also undermine women's capacity to challenge traditions that enable male privilege. In particular, the evidence that right-leaning attitudes could play a more visible role in the justification of disadvantageous systems suggest that programs designed to enable the unlearning of traditional gender training could help to dampen women's support for gender inequality. Hence, for gender-equity activists, it may be effective to target the unlearning of certain right-leaning political myths which might, in turn, dampen women's support for male privilege. Finally, because exposure to a highly gender-unequal society produces a strong reality constraint that sustains the male privilege status quo, it might be useful for activists seeking to engage women in their change efforts (e.g., in rallies against inequality) to emphasize the progress that is possible in the here-and-now, rather than in the distant future. Indeed, appeals to progress in the distant future may ironically activate a hope-induced support for a male privilege status quo (Owuamalam et al., 2021).
Sexual Orientation and Race Intersectionally Reduce the Perceived Gendered Nature of Normative Stereotypes in the United States
Sa-kiera T. J. Hudson and Asma Ghani
Abstract
There is substantial research on the nature of gender prescriptive and proscriptive stereotypes. However, there has been relatively little work on whether these normative stereotypes are equally attributed to men and women of different identities. Across two studies (total N = 928), we assessed the extent to which stereotypes are prescribed and proscribed for men and women of different sexual orientations (Study 1) and races (Study 2) in the United States. We asked participants to rate the desirability of possessing 70 traits based on an “average American.” Although results showed the persistence of gender normative stereotypes in society, the normative nature of these stereotypes was influenced by sexual orientation and race. There was strong evidence of a heterocentric bias, as normative stereotypes of generic men and women most closely aligned with those of straight men and women. There was weaker evidence of a Eurocentric bias. Furthermore, observed gender differences in normative stereotypes were significantly smaller for sexually- and racially-minoritized targets compared to straight and White targets. These findings combined suggest that the practices and policies that attempt to address gender inequality might not be as effective for people with multiply-marginalized identities that face distinctly different patterns of normative pressures. Online slides for instructors who want to use this article for teaching are available on PWQ's website at https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/suppl/10.1177/03616843231187851.
Practice Implications
Our results have implications for people researching stereotypes at the intersection of identities as well as for those studying disparate treatment based on stereotypes. This work is meant to be a reference for scholars to reflect on how normative expectations might impact intersectional groups in a variety of settings, providing rich soil for hypothesis generation and result analysis. For example, it might be important for a scholar studying the treatment of lesbian women in the workplace to know that lesbian women might be under intensified prescription to be agentic compared to straight women but not necessarily more business oriented. These juxtaposed stereotypes might give their study important context and shape research design. To the extent that the given workplace environment would lead lesbian women to be perceived at the intersection of their gender and sexual orientation, our findings can help foster unique hypotheses that would not be generated with the current understanding utilizing descriptive stereotypes alone. Our work further highlights the importance of explicitly labeling relevant categories that might be tacitly assumed to be a particular subgroup within a category. For example, we have learned to do so ourselves in our misuse of “American” to denote people from the U.S. Such an assumption introduces noise in our data to the extent that the label “American” is unclear to participants and is unnecessarily U.S.-centric. We join the call for work to address the hidden assumptions in researchers’ stimuli and writing.
Gendered Racial Microaggressions and Emotional Eating for Black Young Adult Women: The Mediating Roles of Superwoman Schema and Self-Compassion
Vanessa V. Volpe, Julia M. Ross, Abbey Collins, Briana N. Spivey, Natalie N. Watson-Singleton, Rachel W. Goode, Lori S. Hoggard, and Cheryl L. Woods Giscombé
Abstract
Black young adult women's stress experiences are shaped by intersecting racism and sexism. To respond to this stress, some Black young adult women engage in emotional eating, which may threaten their health. Yet processes in the association between gendered racial microaggressions and emotional eating for Black young adult women remain unclear. In the current study, we used cross-sectional online survey data from a 2021 national investigation of 504 United States Black young adult (18–35 years old) women (98.4% cisgender) to test if the superwoman schema and self-compassion mediated the link between gendered racial microaggressions and emotional eating. Employing a serial mediation model in which we controlled for sociodemographic and health covariates, we found support for the hypothesized mediation: more gendered racial microaggressions were associated with greater endorsement of the superwoman schema; greater endorsement of the superwoman schema was associated with less self-compassion; and less self-compassion was associated with more emotional eating. Results provide cross-sectional evidence of theorized processes between gendered racial microaggressions and emotional eating for Black young adult women and point to self-compassion as one potentially important component of health behavior interventions to reduce emotional eating for Black young adult women who take on a superwoman role.
Practice Implications
The promotion of healthy behaviors in the face of gendered racial microaggressions remains a key goal for interventions focused on improving Black young adult women's health. Young adulthood is a critical period for early prevention—a time when health behaviors are solidified (Nelson et al., 2008). Therefore, intervening upon emotional eating as one such behavior may have long-lasting health benefits. Our findings highlight several timely implications for potential interventions worthy of further investigation. Culturally-responsive interventions may help Black young adult women adaptively respond to gendered racial microaggressions in ways that do not require them to adopt a straining role of strength, de-prioritization of self, and resistance of emotional vulnerability associated with less self-compassion and subsequent emotional eating. Emotional eating is a health behavior rooted in the desire to control negative emotions (Kazmierski et al., 2021). This desire, especially in the context of uncontrollable, chronic gendered racial stressors, is an understandable response. Interventions that provide psychoeducation to validate this response while simultaneously increasing self-awareness of when strength is being engaged at the expense of self-compassion, and how to replace it with other responses (Nelson et al., 2016) may be future avenues for clinical and health psychology research and practice. For instance, existing strategies that have been researched and shown success could be adapted and studied in the context of gendered racial microaggressions for Black young adult women, particularly culturally-responsive mind-body strategies such as appetite awareness (Goode et al., 2020) and compassion-based interventions (Watson-Singleton et al., 2019a; 2019b; Woods Giscombé & Black, 2010). Addressing gendered racial microaggressions, superwoman schema, and self-compassion separately may not reduce emotional eating. A holistic approach that contextualizes the superwoman schema and addresses the sequential consequences together will likely better address this pattern as a system.
Gender Microaggressions That Target Women in the U.S. Military: Examining Links with Depression and the Moderating Role of Rank and Coping
Yeeun Kim, Sierra K. Dimberg, Lisa B. Spanierman, and D. Anthony Clark
Abstract
In this study, we examined active-duty women's experiences with gender microaggressions in the U.S. military and their associations with depressive symptoms. We also tested if rank and coping strategies would moderate the link between gender microaggressions and depressive symptoms. Participants comprised 682 self-identified women from the U.S. Air Force, Army, and Navy. Results from an online survey indicated that active-duty women's experiences with gender microaggressions were positively and significantly associated with their scores on a measure of depressive symptoms. Military rank moderated this association but coping strategies did not. Specifically, among those in lower military ranks (i.e., enlisted service members) we found a stronger association between gender microaggressions and depressive symptoms, whereas higher rank (i.e., officers) served as a buffer. Our results suggest that clinicians should be aware of the potential effects of gender microaggressions on active-duty women's mental health, especially among enlisted women. Commanding officers and military policymakers should consider potential implications of gender microaggressions on unit cohesion, unit performance, and mission effectiveness.
Practice Implications
Our results suggest that clinicians should consider the harmful effects of gender microaggressions in the U.S. military. Due to the hypermasculine military culture that minimizes microaggressions and mental health issues, it is possible that active-duty women might not disclose their experiences with microaggressions or their depressive symptoms to their superiors. Clinicians can assist service women in naming their experiences with gender microaggressions and validating their detrimental effects. Support groups might provide a therapeutic setting where women could validate each other. Importantly, because we found enlisted women to be more vulnerable to the effects of gender microaggressions, clinicians should be aware of the potential double stigma these women face (Buchanan et al., 2008). In addition, military policymakers should establish policies and procedures that enable enlisted women to report diverse types of sexist discrimination including gender microaggressions (Rea, 2020) along with other types of sexual harassment, without fear of retaliation.
Although sexual assault and prevention training is required for U.S. service members (DOD Sexual Assault Prevention and Response Office, 2021), gender microaggressions have not been addressed. Certified trainers have been service members who may know little about gender microaggressions theory and research. Therefore, we recommend clinicians work collaboratively with sexual assault and prevention trainers to provide psychoeducation on microaggressions and their adverse effects. Military policymakers involved in sexual assault prevention should consider gender microaggressions, as these subtle forms of sexism reflect underlying cultural issues that can contribute to sexual assault (Gartner & Sterzing, 2016).
Finally, and consistent with Brooks (1981), we do not wish to place the onus on the targets for simply coping with subtle forms of sexism in the military. As the military continues to transition to an increasingly gender-inclusive force, leadership training at every level needs to draw on feminist science to heighten knowledge, awareness, and skills in ways that explicitly respond to gender microaggressions to best support women service members.
Alcohol's Role in Sexual Decision Making in First-Year College Women: An Event-Level Assessment
Nichole M. Scaglione, Rose Marie Ward, Alex Buben, and Rob Turrisi
Abstract
Sexual decision making is often grounded in social scripts that can be detrimental to women's healthy relationships and sexual development during the transition to college. Little is known about the malleable decision-making processes and drinking behaviors that influence sexual behaviors from day-to-day. We examined whether women were more likely to engage in sexual behaviors on days they had higher intentions and willingness to engage in sex or drink alcohol. We also explored interactions between sex- and alcohol-related decision constructs. Eighty-two first-year college women completed 14 days of ecological momentary assessment, reporting on alcohol- and sex-related intentions and willingness (3x daily) and daily drinking and sexual behaviors. We found partial support for our hypotheses: intentions and willingness to have sex were positively associated with sex behaviors, but the willingness to drink was negatively associated with sex behaviors. Heavy drinking was associated with sexual behavior, even when women indicated no prior willingness to engage in sexual behavior on those days. Findings highlight the need to address event-level variability in sexual decision making, with a particular focus on how alcohol impacts these processes. Further, the robust association between sexual intentions and behavior suggests intention setting may be a particularly useful sexual empowerment education tool.
Practice Implications
Researchers and practitioners could use findings from the current study to enhance sexuality education and sexual assault risk reduction empowerment programs aimed at high school and college women. For example, findings suggest women are likely to follow through on their sexual intentions—having sex when they intend to, and not having sex when they do not intend to. However, women may be hesitant to think about or communicate their sexual intentions or desires due to societal norms and sexual scripts that convey it is “wrong” or “inappropriate” for women to have their own desires (Gavey, 2005). To combat this, high school and university curricula might integrate an emancipatory sexuality education approach (Schraag, 1989), which encourages “free choices” and exploration of personal sexual desires, often challenging traditional sexual roles which suggest women should acquiesce to their partner's desires. Similarly, prevention efforts aimed at reducing the likelihood women will experience unplanned or unwanted sex might capitalize on the robust nature of sexual intentions by empowering women to set and assertively communicate personal intentions and boundaries around sex—a strategy often used in sexual assault risk reduction programs (see Orchowski & Gidycz, 2018). Health educators and prevention specialists might consider combining emancipatory sexuality education with sexual assault risk reduction to help women define the sex they want and to effectively resist the sex they do not want. This approach has been rigorously evaluated and has achieved significant positive effects among college women across Canada (Senn et al., 2015).
Findings from the current study also underscore the importance of integrating alcohol into conversations around sexual decision making. It may be beneficial for clinicians and educators to help women understand that they may increase their likelihood of having unwanted sexual experiences (e.g., regretted or forced sex) at certain levels of alcohol consumption. While the current study showed significantly increased odds of sexual behavior at five to seven drinks among women who reported no prior willingness to engage in sexual behavior that day, previous work shows that even among lighter drinkers, their risk for negative sexual outcomes increases on days when they drink more than their typical amount (Scaglione et al., 2014). Messaging around this topic should make it clear that while alcohol increases sexual risk, alcohol does not cause sexual assault: perpetrators do (Lorenz & Ullman, 2016). Further, programs aimed at men or potential perpetrators should highlight that just because a woman is drinking does not mean she is willing to have sex—directly refuting a well-documented misperception (see Abbey, 2002).
Sexual Health Knowledge and Sexual Self-Efficacy as Predictors of Sexual Risk Behaviors in Women
Danielle C. Richner and Shannon M. Lynch
Abstract
According to the Center for Disease Control (CDC), the proportion of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) diagnoses among women in the United States has more than doubled between 1984 and 2019 and rates of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) in all individuals increased 30% between 2015 and 2019. Further, the CDC has designated women ages 13 to 44 years as a group vulnerable to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and STD infection, in part due to frequency of engaging in sexual risk behaviors. Sexual self-efficacy is associated with decreased sexual risk behaviors and counters norms that emphasize passivity and compliance as traditional sexual behavior in women. In the current study, we assessed knowledge of HIV and STD transmission and risk factors, sexual self-efficacy, and frequency of sexual risk behaviors in 281 woman-identified respondents aged 18–44 years in an online survey. Knowledge of HIV and STDs was low (averages of 63.3% and 49.9%, respectively). Younger women, and women who identified as single, White, and/or LGBTQ+ reported more sexual risk behaviors. HIV knowledge and sexual self-efficacy were independently associated with fewer risk behaviors and significantly interacted to predict sexual risk behaviors. STD knowledge and sexual self-efficacy were independently associated with fewer sexual risk behaviors. These findings highlight the need for comprehensive, widespread, and identity-inclusive sexual health education.
Practice Implications
Few studies have explicitly measured sexual self-efficacy as a mechanism for risk-reduction. Findings from this study support the inclusion of sexual self-efficacy materials in conjunction with presentation of HIV and STD information in school based sexual education programs. The findings from this study also support the aim of incorporating comprehensive HIV and STD knowledge and self-efficacy training in risk-reduction programs. Notably, including sexual self-efficacy training as a typical component of sexual health education also has the potential to change current traditional sexual scripts and instead promote views that engaging in sexual self-efficacy is normative and leads to improved sexual health, equity, and well-being (e.g., Bay-Cheng & Zucker, 2007).
Efforts in this direction are starting. The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (2016) recommends that comprehensive sexual health education be medically-accurate and culturally inclusive and include topics on prevention of HIV/STDs and unintended pregnancy, forms of sexual expression, healthy sexual and nonsexual relationships, gender identity and sexual orientation and questioning, communication, recognizing and preventing sexual violence, consent, and decision making. Next, in late 2020, the CDC released its first-ever National Strategic Plan for Sexually Transmitted Infections, offering a roadmap to develop, enhance, and expand STD education and prevention. Some programs specifically targeting women (albeit with heavier focus on HIV than broader STDs) currently incorporate sexual health knowledge and self-efficacy in their curricula (e.g., Sisters Informing Sisters about Topics on AIDS, DiClemente & Wingood, 1995; Project POWER, Fogel et al., 2015). These recommendations offer important and needed guidance to policy makers and educators in this field.
The findings from this study also lend themselves to clinician efforts. Experiences of sexual assault, sexual health concerns, and need for relationship skills are common presenting concerns among women-identified individuals seeking mental health treatment. Many empirically-supported treatment modalities feature direct or indirect components of self-efficacy and could be adapted to include sexual health knowledge and sexual self-efficacy content.