Deformation Analysis of Long-Deep Foundation Pit Excavation in Ningbo Metro Based Using Hardening Soil Small Strain Model

Abstract

Ningbo soft soil predominantly consists of silt, which is characterized by significant thickness, high natural moisture content, low strength, and slow consolidation. When this soft soil is disturbed, it leads to surface settlement. This study examines a subway deep foundation pit in Ningbo by simulating and analyzing the entire excavation process using the finite element software PLAXIS 3D. The study investigates the lateral displacement of the supporting structure and surface subsidence trends. In addition, it discusses the effects of the diaphragm wall and supporting stiffness on the surrounding ground settlement. The findings indicate that increasing the stiffness of the diaphragm wall or support structure effectively reduces ground settlement during subway excavation. Furthermore, the study confirms that the proposed method for determining the HSS model parameters is suitable and can offer valuable insights for similar projects in Ningbo and comparable regions.

Keywords

long-deep excavation engineering ground reinforcement HSS model deformation analysis three-dimensional numerical simulation

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Gonzalez-Navarro

Turner

M. A.

Subways and Urban Growth: Evidence from Earth. Journal of Urban Economics, Vol. 108, 2018, pp. 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2018.09.002.

Han

The Capitalization and Urbanization Effect of Subway Stations: A Network Centrality Perspective. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice, Vol. 176, 2023, p. 103815. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2023.103815.

Lin

Broere

Cui

Metro Systems and Urban Development: Impacts and Implications. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, Vol. 125, 2022, p. 104509. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2022.104509.

Ren

Shen

Zhao

Deformation Monitoring and Remote Analysis of Ultra-Deep Underground Space Excavation. Underground Space, Vol. 8, 2023, pp. 30–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.undsp.2022.04.005.

Ding

Jin

Han

T.-C.

Analysis of the Zoning Excavation Monitoring Data of a Narrow and Deep Foundation Pit in a Soft Soil Area. Journal of Geophysics and Engineering, Vol. 15, No. 4, 2018, pp. 1231–1241. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-2140/aaadd2.

Tan

Wei

Diao

Zhou

Spatial Corner Effects of Long and Narrow Multipropped Deep Excavations in Shanghai Soft Clay. Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities, Vol. 28, No. 4, 2014, p. 04014015. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CF.1943-5509.0000475.

Zhang

Yang

Zhang

Gao

Cause Investigation of Damages in Existing Building Adjacent to Foundation Pit in Construction. Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 83, 2018, pp. 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2017.09.016.

Yan

Tong

Liu

Xiao

Wang

Effects of the Excavation of Deep Foundation Pits on an Adjacent Double-Curved Arch Bridge. Underground Space, Vol. 21, 2025, pp. 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.undsp.2024.09.001.

Son

Cording

E. J.

Estimation of Building Damage Due to Excavation-Induced Ground Movements. Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 131, No. 2, 2005, pp. 162–177. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0241(2005)131:2(162).

10.

Wang

Simplified Method of Deformation Prediction for Excavations Retained by Embedded Walls in Shanghai Soft Soil. Chinese Journal of Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 34, No. 10, 2012, pp. 1792–1800.

11.

Wang

Zhu

Sensitivity Analysis and Application of the Shanghai Model in Ultra-Deep Excavation Engineering. Geotechnics, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2025, p. 6. https://doi.org/10.3390/geotechnics5010006.

12.

Ruan

Yong

Laboratory Simulation Test Research on Soil Characteristics of Foundation Pit Excavation Considering the Deflection of Principal Stress Axis. Presented at the 2022 8th International Conference on Hydraulic and Civil Engineering: Deep Space Intelligent Development and Utilization Forum (ICHCE), 2022.

13.

Benz

Small-Strain Stiffness of Soils and Its Numerical Consequences. University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, 2007.

14.

Atkinson

J. H.

Experimental Determination of Stress-Strain-Time Characteristics in Laboratory and-in-Situ Tests. General Report. No. 3, 1991, pp. 915–956.

15.

Jardine

R. J.

Potts

D. M.

Fourie

A. B.

Burland

J. B.

Studies of the Influence of Non-Linear Stress–Strain Characteristics in Soil–Structure Interaction. Géotechnique, Vol. 36, No. 3, 1986, pp. 377–396. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.1986.36.3.377.

16.

McDowell

G. R.

Bolton

M. D.

Micro Mechanics of Elastic Soil. Soils and Foundations, Vol. 41, No. 6, 2001, pp. 147–152. https://doi.org/10.3208/sandf.41.6_147.

17.

Clayton

C. R. I.

Stiffness at Small Strain: Research and Practice. Géotechnique, Vol. 61, No. 1, 2011, pp. 5–37. https://doi.org/10.1680/geot.2011.61.1.5.

18.

Choo

Bate

Burns

S. E.

Effects of Organic Matter on Stiffness of Overconsolidated State and Anisotropy of Engineered Organoclays at Small Strain. Engineering Geology, Vol. 184, 2015, pp. 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.10.022.

19.

Lei

Gong

Analysis of Lateral Displacement Law of Deep Foundation Pit Support in Soft Soil Based on Improved MSD Method. Advances in Civil Engineering, Vol. 2021, No. 1, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5550214.

20.

Qin

Yan

Qiao

Zhao

Surface Deformation Characteristics and Influencing Factors in Deep Foundation Pit Excavations for Subway Projects in Ningbo’s Soft Soil Area. Buildings, Vol. 15, No. 8, 2025, p. 1229. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings15081229.

21.

Yan

Qin

Qiao

Liang

Zhao

Study on the Deformation Characteristics of Diaphragm Walls in Deep Excavations within the Ningbo Soft Soil Region. Scientific Reports, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2025, p. 15036. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-95878-y.

22.

Wang-Yan Zhang-Fei . Deformation Analysis of Retaining Structure of Deep Foundation Pit in Soft Soil under Over-Excavation. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Vol. 304, No. 3, 2019, p. 032046. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/304/3/032046.

23.

T. M.

Fatahi

Khabbaz

Viscous Behaviour of Soft Clay and Inducing Factors. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 30, No. 5, 2012, pp. 1069–1083. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-012-9535-0.

24.

Lim

C.-Y.

Hsieh

P.-G.

Investigation of the Integrated Retaining System to Limit Deformations Induced by Deep Excavation. Acta Geotechnica, Vol. 13, No. 4, 2017, pp. 973–995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11440-017-0613-6.

25.

Bovolenta

Brencich

Effect of Deep Excavations and Deformable Retaining Structures on Neighboring Buildings: A Case Study. Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 122, 2021, p. 105269. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2021.105269.

26.

Robert

D. J.

A Modified Mohr-Coulomb Model to Simulate the Behavior of Pipelines in Unsaturated Soils. Computers and Geotechnics, Vol. 91, 2017, pp. 146–160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2017.07.004.

27.

Schanz

Vermeer

P. A.

Bonnier

P. G.

The Hardening Soil Model: Formulation and Verification. In Beyond 2000 in Computational Geotechnics (R. B. J. Brinkgreve, ed.), Balkema, Routledge, 1999, pp. 281–296.

28.

Kawa

Puła

Truty

Probabilistic Analysis of the Diaphragm Wall Using the Hardening Soil-Small (HSs) Model. Engineering Structures, Vol. 232, 2021, p. 111869. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2021.111869.

29.

Cao

Zhang

Wang

Zhang

Wang

Experimental Study of Hardening Small Strain Model Parameters for Strata Typical of Zhengzhou and Their Application in Foundation Pit Engineering. Buildings, Vol. 13, No. 11, 2023, p. 2784. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings13112784.

30.

Zhao

Peng

Analysis on Intelligent Deformation Prediction of Deep Foundation Pits with Internal Support Based on Optical Fiber Monitoring and the HSS Model. Frontiers in Materials, Vol. 10, 2023, p. Article no. 1231303. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2023.1231303.

31.

Kong

Qin

Zhang

Parameters Determination Methods and Project Validation of Hardening Soil Model with Small Strain Stiffness Based on Finite Element Method. Scientific Reports, Vol. 15, No. 1, 2025, p. 13717. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-98186-7.

32.

Zampirolli

Farfán

A. D.

Maia

P. C. de A.

Three-Dimensional Numerical Analysis of the Effect of Foundation Stiffness on Soil-Structure Interaction. Soils and Rocks, Vol. 47, No. 4, 2024, p. Article no. e2024000424.

33.

Hemeda

Geotechnical Modelling and Subsurface Analysis of Complex Underground Structures Using PLAXIS 3D. International Journal of Geo-Engineering, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2022, p. 9. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40703-022-00174-7.

34.

Saleh

Mohd Yunus

N. Z.

Ahmad

Mat Said

K. N.

Numerical Simulation with Hardening Soil Model Parameters of Marine Clay Obtained from Conventional Tests. SN Applied Sciences, Vol. 3, No. 2, 2021, p. 156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42452-020-04115-w.

35.

Castelli

Grasso

Lentini

Sammito

M. S. V.

Nonlinear 3D Finite Element Analysis of a Coupled Soil–Structure System by a Deterministic Approach. Geosciences, Vol. 14, No. 4, 2024, p. 100. https://doi.org/10.3390/geosciences14040100.

36.

Benz

Vermeer

P. A.

Schwab

A Small-strain Overlay Model. International Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics, Vol. 33, No. 1, 2008, pp. 25–44. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.701.

37.

Yang

Zhang

Influence of Deep Foundation Pit Excavation on Surrounding Environment: A Case Study in Nanjing, China. Acta Geophysica, Vol. 73, No. 1, 2025, pp. 495–516. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-024-01425-0.

38.

Benz

Schwab

Vermeer

Small-Strain Stiffness in Geotechnical Analyses. Bautechnik, Vol. 86, No. S1, 2009, pp. 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1002/bate.200910038.

39.

Tongji University Press. Technical Code for Excavation Engineering. Tongji University Press, Shanghai, 2010.

40.

Liang

Gao

On HSS model parameters for Shanghai soils with engineering verification. Rock and Soil Mechanics, Vol. 42, No. 3, 2021, pp. 833–845. https://doi.org/10.16285/j.rsm.2020.0741.

41.

Lin

Zhu

Bian

Gao

Chen

Field Test and Analysis of Controlling Metro Excavations Deformation by Foundation Reinforcement. Journal of Zhejiang University (Engineering Science), Vol. 51, No. 8, 2017, pp. 1475–1481. https://doi.org/10.3785/j.issn.1008-973X.2017.08.001.

42.

Jia

Research and Practice of Reinforcement Mechanism in Controlling Foundation Pit Deformation. PhD thesis. Tongji University, Shanghai, 2003.

43.

Cui

Deng

Fan

Feng

Liu

Ren

Parameter Optimization Analysis of Deep Foundation Pit Reinforcement in Passive Zone in Wuhan Soft Soil. Safety and Environmental Engineering, Vol. 29, No. 6, 2022, pp. 42–53. https://doi.org/10.13578/j.cnki.issn.1671-1556.20211235.

44.

Hsieh

P.-G.

Prediction of Ground Movements Caused by Deep Excavation in Clay. PhD thesis. National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei City, 1999.

45.

Duan

S.-M.

A Study of Settlement Influence Range Caused by Deep Excavation in Soft Clay. Master’s thesis. National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei City, 2005.

46.

Wang

Dong

Sun

The Deformation Characteristics of a 40-m-Deep Excavation Supported by a Suspended Diaphragm Wall in Rock and Soil Composite Ground. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 3, 2022, pp. 1040–1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-021-1810-2.

47.

Nong

Wang

Lin

Luo

Tang

Performance of Diaphragm Walls during Ultra-Deep Excavations in Karst Areas: Field Monitoring Analysis. Advances in Civil Engineering, Vol. 2024, No. 1, 2024, p. Article no. 5834253. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/5834253.

48.

Mei

Y.-L.

Wang

X.-Y.

Wang

C.-M.

Statistical Analysis of Deformation Laws of Deep Foundation Pits in Collapsible Loess. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Vol. 44, No. 10, 2019, pp. 8347–8360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-019-03931-6.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.04 MB