Feasibility Analysis of Cement-Stabilized Gravel Material Incorporating Aluminum Tailings Sand for Advanced Road Pavements

Abstract

Aluminum tailings sand (ATS), rich in silica and alumina, offers a sustainable alternative to natural sand in road construction, reducing ecosystem damage from sand extraction. This study evaluates the feasibility and engineering performance of cement-stabilized gravel material (CSGM) incorporating ATS (ATS-CSGM) to mitigate tailings accumulation and resource depletion. Macroscopic and microscopic tests assessed mechanical properties, durability, and economic/environmental benefits at ATS substitution rates (0%–30%). Results show mechanical properties decline with increasing ATS content. However, mixes with 10% (ATS-10) and 16% (ATS-16) ATS achieved 7 days unconfined compressive strengths (UCS) of 5.56 MPa and 4.08 MPa, respectively, meeting the subgrade requirement (UCS > 4.0 MPa). ATS-CSGM exhibited enhanced durability and improved resistance to drying shrinkage. Microanalysis revealed that ATS addition reduced hydration product coverage, decreased compactness, and increased porosity. Despite this, ATS contributed to a denser surface structure of hydration products via filling and microaggregate effects, significantly delaying deterioration under environmental influences. A comprehensive assessment of performance, economic, and environmental benefits identified 16% as the optimal ATS substitution rate. The study concludes that ATS-modified CSGM presents a viable, environmentally friendly solution for waste management in road engineering, offering dual economic and environmental advantages and contributing to carbon neutrality goals.

Keywords

cement-stabilized gravel material aluminum tailings sand durability;microscopic mechanism sustainability analysis

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Yan

Gong

Chen

Laboratory Tests, Field Application and Carbon Footprint Assessment of Cement-Stabilized Pure Coal Solid Wastes as Pavement Base Materials. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 366, 2023, p. 130265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.130265.

Buritatum

Horpibulsuk

Udomchai

Suddeepong

Takaikaew

Vichitcholchai

Horpibulsuk

Arulrajah

Durability Improvement of Cement Stabilized Pavement Base using Natural Rubber Latex. Transportation Geotechnics, Vol. 28, 2021, p. 100518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2021.100518.

Zhou

Gou

Zhang

Investigation on the Applicability of Bauxite Tailings as Fine Aggregate to Prepare 3D Printing Mortar. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 364, 2023, p. 129904. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129904.

Qiang

Shen

Guo

Cheng

Zhang

A Simple Hydrothermal Synthesis of Zeolite X from Bauxite Tailings for Highly Efficient Adsorbing CO₂ at Room Temperature. Microporous and mesoporous Materials, Vol. 287, 2019, pp. 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micromeso.2019.05.062.

Wang

Lan

Adsorption Mechanisms of Cr (VI) on the Modified Bauxite Railings. Minerals Engineering, Vol. 21, No. 12–14, 2008, pp. 913–917. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mineng.2008.04.003.

Dong

Tong

Zhou

Wang

Liu

Some Developments and New Insights of Environmental Problems and Deep Mining Strategy for Cleaner Production in Mines. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 210, 2019, pp. 1562–1578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.122270.

Meng

Y. H.

Zhang

Y. Y.

Current Situation and Prospects of Comprehensive Utilization of Tailings in China. Chinese Journal of Mining Engineering, Vol. 39, No. 5, 2010, pp. 4–9.

Zhou

Gou

Luo

Hydration Kinetics of a Calcination Activated Bauxite Tailings-Lime-Gypsum Ternary System. Journal of Building Engineering, Vol. 38, 2021, p. 102189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2021.102189.

Etim

R. K.

Eberemu

A. O.

Osinubi

K. J.

Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil With Lime and Iron Ore Tailings Admixture. Transportation Geotechnics, Vol. 10, 2017, pp. 85–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2017.01.002

10.

dos Santos

C. P.

Bruschi

G. J.

Mattos

J. R. G.

Consoli

N. C.

Stabilization of Gold Mining Tailings With Alkali-Activated Carbide Lime and Sugarcane Bagasse Ash. Transportation Geotechnics, Vol. 32, 2022, p. 100704. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2021.100704.

11.

Chen

Jiang

Qin

Tan

Analysis of Engineering Characteristics and Microscopic Mechanism of Red Mud-Bauxite Tailings Mud Foam Light Soil. Materials, Vol. 15, No. 5, 2022, p. 1782. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051782.

12.

Calderon

A. R. M.

Alorro

R. D.

Tadesse

Yoo

Tabelin

C. B.

Repurposing of Nickeliferous Pyrrhotite from Mine Tailings as Magnetic Adsorbent for the Recovery of Gold from Chloride Solution. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, Vol. 161, 2020, p. 104971. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.104971.

13.

Ojuri

O. O.

Adavi

A. A.

Oluwatuyi

O. E.

Geotechnical and Environmental Evaluation of Lime–Cement Stabilized Soil–Mine Tailing Mixtures for Highway Construction. Transportation Geotechnics, Vol. 10, 2017, pp. 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2016.10.001.

14.

Zhang

Lin

Gao

Liu

Feasibility of Preparing Red Mud-Based Cementitious Materials: Synergistic Utilization of Industrial Solid Waste, Waste Heat, and Tail Gas. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 285, 2021, p. 124896. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.124896.

15.

Pavez

González

Vega

Rojas

Copper Tailings in Stucco Mortars. REM-International Engineering Journal, Vol. 69, 2016, pp. 333–339. https://doi.org/10.1590/0370-44672015690148.

16.

Onuaguluchi

Eren

Ö.

Rheology, Strength and Durability Properties of Mortars Containing Copper Tailings as a Cement Replacement Material. European Journal of Environmental and Civil Engineering, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2013, pp. 19–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/19648189.2012.699708.

17.

Arbili

M. M.

Alqurashi

Majdi

Ahmad

Deifalla

A. F.

Concrete Made With Iron Ore Tailings as a Fine Aggregate: A Step Towards Sustainable Concrete. Materials, Vol. 15, No. 18, 2022, p. 6236. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186236.

18.

Chen

Shen

W. G.

Shan

Xiong

C. B.

Y. Q.

Liu

Rao

J. L.

Situation of Discharge and Comprehensive Utilization of Iron Tailings Domestic and Abroad. Hunningtu(Concrete), No. 2, 2012, pp. 88–92.

19.

Soltaninejad

M. F. S. K.

Moshizi

M. K.

Sadeghi

Jahanbakhsh

Environmental-Friendly Mortar Produced With Treated and Untreated Coal Wastes as Cement Replacement Materials. Clean Technologies and Environmental Policy, Vol. 23, 2021, pp. 2843–2860. https://doi.org/10.1007/S10098-021-02204-X.

20.

Che

T. K.

Pan

B. F.

Sha

J. L.

Utilization of Iron Tailings as Fine Aggregates in Low-Grade Cement Concrete Pavement. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 479, No. 1, 2019, p. 012053. http://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/479/1/012053.

21.

Djellali

Laouar

M. S.

Saghafi

Houam

Evaluation of Cement-Stabilized Mine Tailings as Pavement Foundation Materials. Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Vol. 37, 2019, pp. 2811–2822. http://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-018-00796-8.

22.

Zhang

Dong

Hou

Qian

Tian

Zhang

Resurfacing Performance Evaluation of Recycled Mixture with High Content of Iron Tailings Sand. Coatings, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2023, p. 487. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings13030487.

23.

Zhang

Ding

Performance Evaluation of Cement Stabilized Recycled Mixture With Recycled Concrete Aggregate and Crushed Brick. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 296, 2021, P. 123596. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.123596.

24.

Sá

T. S. W.

Oda

Machado

V. K. C. B. L.

Toledo Filho

R. D.

Use of Iron Ore Tailings and Sediments on Pavement Structure. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 342, 2022, p. 128072. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128072.

25.

Hoy

Tran

N. Q.

Suddeepong

Horpibulsuk

Mobkrathok

Chinkulkijniwat

Arulrajah

Improved Fatigue Properties of Cement-Stabilized Recycled Materials–Lateritic Soil using Natural Rubber Latex for Sustainable Pavement Applications. Transportation Geotechnics, Vol. 40, 2023, p. 100959. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2023.100959.

26.

Servi

Lotero

Silva

J. P. S.

Bastos

Consoli

N. C.

Mechanical Response of Filtered and Compacted Iron Ore Tailings With Different Cementing Agents: Focus on Tailings-Binder Mixtures Disposal by Stacking. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 349, 2022, P. 128770. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128770.

27.

Sun

J. S.

Dou

Y. M.

Chen

Z. X.

Yang

C. F.

Experimental Study on the Performances of Cement Stabilized Iron Ore Tailing Gravel in Highway Application. Applied Mechanics and Materials, Vol. 97, 2011, pp. 425–428. http://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.97-98.425.

28.

I.S.O. China, Test Methods of Aggregate for Highway Engineering (JTG E42-2005)Communication press, China, 2005.

29.

I.S.O. China, Common Portland Cement (GB175-2007), pp. 9–11.

30.

I.S.O. China, Specifications for Design of Highway Cement Concrete Pavement (JTG D40-2011), China Communications Press, 2011, pp. 25–27.

31.

I.S.O. China, Test Methods of Materials Stabilized with Inorganic Binder for Highway Engineering (JTG E51-2009), China Communication Press, 2009, pp. 96–149.

32.

Wang

Shao

Cai

Jin

Zhang

Qiu

Rui

Chen

Experimental Study on Durability of Fiber Reinforced Concrete: Effect of Cellulose Fiber, Polyvinyl Alcohol Fiber and Polyolefin Fiber. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 306, 2021, p. 124867. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124867.

33.

ASTM-D559 Standard Test Methods for Wetting and Drying Compacted Soil-Cement Mixtures ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, USA, 1996.

34.

Ikumi

Cavalaro

S. H. P.

Segura

Aguado

Alternative Methodology to Consider Damage and Expansions in External Sulfate Attack Modeling. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 63, 2014, pp. 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2014.05.011.

35.

I.S.O. China,Sand for construction (GB/T 14684-2011), China Standard Press, 2011.

36.

Gao

Zhao

Guo

Zhou

Cui

Yang

H. H. I. T. S. U. X. U. X. U.

Mechanical Properties of Circular Thin-Tubed Molybdenum Tailing Concrete Stubs. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 268, 2021, pp. 121215.121211–121215.121213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121215.

37.

I.S.O. China 2015. Technical rules for construction of highway pavement base. JTG/T F20-2015 Beijing: China.

38.

Yan

You

Zhou

Performance Assessments of Open-Graded Cement Stabilised Macadam Containing Recycled Aggregate. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 233, 2020, p. 117326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117326.

39.

Xue

Zhao

Zhang

and China Architecture Civil Engineering Construction Co, Ltd, Zheng Zheng

H. X. U. E. X. H. Z. M. H. Z. J. H. Z. H.

(2025). Effect of Composite Curing Agent on Road Performance of Fly Ash-Gangue Mix. Hebei Industrial Science and Technology, 42(1), 2025, pp. 62–69. https://doi.org/10.7535/hbgykj.2025yx01008.

40.

Padhi

R. S.

Patra

R. K.

Mukharjee

B. B.

Dey

T. V. S. S. U. T. I. I. T. N. I. S.

, and Technol. Influence of Incorporation of Rice Husk Ash and Coarse Recycled Concrete Aggregates on Properties of Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 173, 2018, pp. 289–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.270.

41.

Siddique

Shrivastava

Chaudhary

Gupta

M. N. I. T. J. I. I. T. I. M.

Strength and Impact Resistance Properties of Concrete Containing Fine Bone China Ceramic Aggregate. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 169, 2018, pp. 289–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.02.213.

42.

Duarte

Bravo

deBrito

Nobre

Mechanical Performance of Shotcrete Produced With Recycled Coarse Aggregates from Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 210, 2019, pp. 696–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.156.

43.

Wang

Liu

Zhao

Liu

K. X. U. A.

and Technol. The Mechanical Properties and Resistance Against the Coupled Deterioration of Sulfate Attack and Freeze–Thaw Cycles of Tailing Recycled Aggregate Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 269, 2021, pp. 121273.121271–121273.121211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121273.

44.

Shettima

A. U.

Hussin

M. W.

Ahmad

Mirza

J. U. T. M.

Evaluation of Iron Ore Tailings as Replacement for Fine Aggregate in Concrete. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 120, 2016, pp. 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.05.095.

45.

Shi

Kou

Experimental Study on Mechanical Properties of High-Ductility Concrete against Combined Sulfate Attack and Dry–Wet Cycles. Materials, Vol. 14, 2021, 4035. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14144035.

46.

Wang

H. L.

Dong

Y. S.

Sun

X. Y.

, and Zhe jiang University, Jin, China. H. W. H.-l. H. D. Y.-s. H. S. X.-y. H. J. W.-l. ZhejiangMechanism of Deterioration of Concrete by Sulfate Attack under Alternating Wet and Dry Environments. Journal of Zhejiang University (Engineering Edition), Vol. 46, No. 7, 2012, pp. 1255–1261. https://doi.org/10.3785/j.issn.1008-973X.2012.07.016.

47.

Guo

J.-J.

Liu

P.-Q.

C.-L.

Wang

Effect of Dry–Wet Cycle Periods on Properties of Concrete under Sulfate Attack. Applied Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2021, p. 888. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11020888.

48.

Zhong

Wang

Zhang

Mao

Xing

Jinhui

Xiao

Durability Analysis of Metakaolin Recycled Concrete under Sulphate Dry and Wet Cycle. Scientific Reports, Vol. 14, No. 1, 2024, p. 16435. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-66803-6.

49.

Jun

Peiwei

Hongwei

Lifang

Study on Concrete Resistance to Chloride Salt Corrosion under Full Soaking and Wet-Dry Cycling Condition. Journal of Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Vol. 41, No. 5, 2017, pp. 666–670.

50.

Sun

Wang

Zhang

Study on Durability against Dry-Wet Cycles and Chloride Ion Erosion of Concrete Revetment Materials at the Water-Level-Fluctuations Zone in Yellow River Delta Wetlands. Wetlands: The Journal of the Society of Wetland Scientists, Vol. 40, No. 6, 2020, pp. 2713–2727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-020-01326-0.

51.

Xiaozhou

Ben

Chen

Canhao

Investigation of the Mechanical Properties of Iron Tailings Concrete Subjected to Dry–Wet Cycle and Negative Temperature. Materials, Vol. 16, No. 13, 2023, p. 4602. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16134602.

52.

Que

Jia

Wang

Fang

Substitution of Tailings Sand in Cement-Stabilized Gravel Base Material for Road Construction: Mechanical Properties, Durability, and Microstructure. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 37, No. 4, 2025, pp. 4025045.1–4025045.11. https://doi.org/10.1061/JMCEE7.MTENG-18380.

53.

Gupta

R. C.

Mehra

Thomas

B. S.

Utilization of Copper Tailing in Developing Sustainable and Durable Concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 29, No. 5, 2017, p. 04016274. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)mt.1943-5533.0001813.

54.

Horpibulsuk

Rachan

Chinkulkijniwat

Raksachon

Suddeepong

Analysis of Strength Development in Cement-Stabilised Silty Clay from Microstructural Considerations. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 24, No. 10, 2010, pp. 2011–2021. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2010.03.011.

55.

Dong

Chen

Feng

Wang

Fan

Liu

Yin

Investigating Hydration Characteristics of Portland Cement-Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cement-Gypsum Ternary Cementitious System With Low Eater Binder Ratio: A Magnetism-Heat Theory Approach. Journal of Building Engineering, Vol. 80, p. 107976. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JOBE.2023.107976.

56.

Yin

Hou

Chen

Zhang

Mechanical, Flowing and Microstructural Properties of Cemented Sulfur Tailings Backfill: Effects of Fiber Lengths and Dosage. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 309, 2021, p. 125058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125058.

57.

Tran

N. Q.

Hoy

Suddeepong

Horpibulsuk

Kantathum

Arulrajah

Improved Mechanical and Microstructure of Cement-Stabilised Lateritic Soil using Recycled Materials Replacement and Natural Rubber Latex for Pavement Applications. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 347, 2022, p. 128547. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.128547.

58.

Jiang

Chen

Wang

Yang

Wang

Flexural Behavior Evaluation and Energy Dissipation Mechanisms of Modified Iron Tailings Powder Incorporating Cement and Fibers Subjected to Freeze–Thaw Cycles. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 351, 2022, p. 131527. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131527.

59.

Zhuang

X. Y.

Chen

Komarneni

Zhou

C. H.

Tong

D. S.

Yang

H. M.

W. H.

Wang

Fly Ash-Based Geopolymer: Clean Production, Properties and Applications. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 125, 2016, pp. 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.03.019.

60.

Liu

G. G.

Ming

Zhang

X. W.

Study on the Durability of Concrete With Mineral Admixtures to Sulfate Attack by Dry-Wet Cycle Method. Advanced Materials Research, Vol. 295, 2011, pp. 165–169. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.295-297.165.

61.

Zhang

Chen

Wang

Study on the Expansion of Concrete under Attack of Sulfate and Sulfate-Chloride Ions. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 39, 2013, pp. 26–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.05.003.

62.

Liu

Zhu

Zhang

Song

K. I.

A Microstructural Hydration Model for Cemented Paste Backfill Considering Internal Sulfate Attacks. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 211, 2019, pp. 99–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.03.222.

63.

Yongqiang

L. I.

Mingfang

B. A.

Junzhe

L. I. U.

Zhimin

H. E.

Resistance to Chloride Erosion of Cement Matrix Composite Materials under Dry-Wet Cycling and their Micro-Structural Changes. Acta Materiae Compositae Sinica, Vol. 34, No. 12, 2017, pp. 2856–2865. https://doi.org/10.13801/j.cnki.fhclxb.20170407.001.

64.

Han

X. Q.

Zhan

S. L.

Tang

X. D.

Wang

L. B.

Qian

K. L.

Effect of Dry-Wet Cycling on Resistance of Concrete to Chloride Ion Permeation Erosion. Acta Materiae Compositae Sinica, Vol. 37, 2020, pp. 198–204. https://doi.org/10.13801/j.cnki.fhclxb.20190402.005.

65.

Zhu

Sun

Xiao

Research on Chloride Ion Diffusion Performance in Early Age Concrete under Dry-Wet Cycles. Computer Science and Engineering Technology (CSET2015) & Medical Science and Biological Engineering (MSBE2015) Proceedings of the 2015 International Conference on CSET & MSBE, 2016, pp. 612–619. https://doi.org/10.1142/9789814651011_0086.

66.

Hoy

Tran

N. Q.

Suddeepong

Horpibulsuk

Buritatum

Yaowarat

Arulrajah

Wetting-Drying Durability Performance of Cement-Stabilised Recycled Materials and Lateritic Soil using Natural Rubber Latex. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 403, 2023, p. 133108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133108.

67.

Qiu

Guo

Yang

Jiang

Zhao

Effect of Tailings Fineness on Flow, Strength, Ultrasonic and Microstructure Characteristics of Cemented Paste Backfill. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 263, 2020, p. 120645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120645.

68.

Wang

J. N.

W. Y.

C. Y.

Shui

Z. H.

Qian

Leng

Liu

K. N.

Hou

D. S.

Wang

X. P.

A Novel Design of Low Carbon Footprint Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) Based on Full Scale Recycling of Gold Tailings. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 304, 2021, p. 124664. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124664.

69.

Evangelista

De Brito

Mechanical Behaviour of Concrete Made With Fine Recycled Concrete Aggregates. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 29, No. 5, 2007, pp. 397–401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2006.12.004.

70.

Gao

Dai

Jing

Sesay

Investigation of the Performance of Cement-Stabilised Magnesium Slag as a Road Base Material. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 403, 2023, p. 133065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.133065.

71.

Baradaran

Rahimi

Ameri

Maleki

Mechanical Performance of Asphalt Mixture Containing Eco-Friendly Additive by Recycling PET. Case Studies in Construction Materials, Vol. 20, 2024, p. e02740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2023.e02740.

72.

Zhang

Shang

Wang

Experimental Research on Drying Control Condition With Minimal Effect on Concrete Strength. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 135, 2017, pp. 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.12.141.

73.

Han

Tan

Effect of Different Humidity-Controlling Modes on Microstructure and Compressive Behavior of Ordinary Concrete. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 32, No. 1, 2020, p. 04019337. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003005.

74.

Haghighatpour

P. J.

Aliha

M. R. M. W.

, Joining Research Center School of Industrial Engineering Iran University of, S., and Technology. Assessment of Freezing and Thawing Cycle (FTC) Effects on Mixed Mode I/III Fracture Toughness and Work of Fracture of HMA Asphalt Mixtures. Theoretical and Applied Fracture Mechanics, Vol. 118, 2022, P. 103261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tafmec.2022.103261.

75.

H. T.

Mechanism of Freeze–thaw Damage in Concrete Incorporating Iron Tailings Sand (Master’s thesis, Liaoning University of Petroleum and Chemical Technology). Master’s thesis, in Chinese], 2021. Available at: https://link.cnki.net/doi/10.27023/d.cnki.gfssc.2021.000035.

76.

Feng

X. X.

X. L.

Cai

J. W.

Chai

H. J.

Song

Y. Z.

Investigation of Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Prepared With Iron Mine Tailings. Key Engineering Materials, Vol. 477, 2011, pp. 37–41. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.477.37.

77.

Baradaran

Aliha

M. R. M.

Mode I and Mode II Fracture Assessment of Green Asphalt Pavements Containing Plastic Waste and RAP at Low and Intermediate Temperature. Results in Engineering, Vol. 25, 2025, p. 103734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103734.

78.

Baradaran

Aliha

M. R. M.

Maleki

Underwood

B. S.

Fracture Properties of Asphalt Mixtures Containing High Content of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) and Eco-Friendly PET Additive at Low Temperature. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 449, 2024, p. 20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2024.138426.

79.

Liu

Zhang

Mechanism of Regulating the Mechanical Properties and Paste Structure of Supersulfated Cement Through Ultrafine Iron Tailings Powder. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 140, 2023, p. 105061. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2023.105061.

80.

Zhang

Wang

Song

Effect of Waste Glass Powder on Pore Structure, Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Cemented Tailings Backfill. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 365, 2023, p. 130062. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.130062.

81.

Yang

Feng

Rong

Liang

Zhang

Huang

The Leaching-Deterioration Properties and Leaching Mechanism of Cement Mortar Under Dry-Wet Cycles. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 400, 2023, p. 132672. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132672.

82.

Zhang

Hedayat

Figueroa

Steirer

K. X.

Sosa

H. G. B.

Bernal

R. P. H.

Tupa

Morales

I. Y.

Loza

R. S. C.

Experimental Studies on the Durability and Leaching Properties of Alkali-Activated Tailings Subjected to Different Environmental Conditions. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 130, 2022, p. 104531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2022.104531.

83.

Adiguzel

Tuylu

Eker

Utilization of Tailings in Concrete Products: A Review. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 360, 2022, P. 129574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129574.

84.

Müller

H. S.

Haist

Vogel

Assessment of the Sustainability Potential of Concrete and Concrete Structures Considering their Environmental Impact, Performance and Lifetime. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 67, 2014, pp. 321–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2014.01.039.

85.

Zhang

Zhu

Zhang

Liu

Yang

Wan

Huo

Yang

Engineering Properties and Optimal Design of Foam Lightweight Soil Composite Fly Ash: An Eco-Friendly Subgrade Material. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol.429, 2023, P. 139631. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.139631.

86.

Zhang

Liu

Yang

Sun

Experimental Study on the Performance of Lime-Based Low Carbon Cementitious Materials. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 168, 2018, pp. 780–793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.Conbuildmat.2018.02.156.

87.

Quan

Wang

Liu

Zhao

Liu

Influence of Molybdenum Tailings By-Products as Fine Aggregates on Mechanical Properties and Microstructure of Concrete. Journal of Building Engineering, Vol. 54, 2022, p. 104677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2022.104677.