There are over 35 million concrete crossties (sleepers) installed in track in North America, with approximately 750,000 to 1,500,000 additional new ones installed annually. These components have been the focus of much research over recent years, which is resulting in significant advancements in their design and use. New solutions are addressing rail seat deterioration, abrasion, splitting, and other issues that have been associated with past derailments or have required major intervention. Moreover, concrete crosstie design is moving toward a performance-based approach, which is more efficient than the traditional prescription-based methods with generous safety factors. Smart crossties are also emerging, which go far beyond the traditional concepts of crosstie application. This paper presents an overall picture of the state of the art of concrete crossties in North America, linking fundamentals, industry challenges, design approaches, recent developments, and trends for the future.
ZemanJ. C.Hydraulic Mechanisms of Concrete-Tie Rail Seat Deterioration. MS thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2010.
5.
SeneseK.Annual Crosstie Update. Railway Track and Structures, October2, 2016, pp. 22–33.
6.
EdwardsJ. R.Quantification of Prestressed Concrete Railway Crosstie Flexural Response: Implications for Mechanistic Design. PhD thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2019.
7.
JimenezR.LoPrestiJ.Performance of Alternative Tie Material Under Heavy-Axle-Load Traffic. Railway Track and Structures, Vol. 100, 2004, pp. 16–18.
8.
Van DykB.Characterization of the Loading Environment for Shared-Use Railway Superstructure in North America. MS thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2014.
9.
LinT. Y.BurnsN. H.Design of Prestressed Concrete Structures. John Wiley & Sons, Hoboken, NJ, 1981.
10.
NaamanA. E.Prestressed Concrete Analysis and Design: Fundamentals. Techno Press 3000, Ann Arbor, MI, 2004.
11.
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (AREMA). Manual for Railway Engineering. The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association, Landover, MD, 2017.
12.
ChorosJ.ColtmanM. N.MarquisB.Prevention of Derailments Due to Concrete Tie Rail Seat Deterioration. Presented at the ASME/IEEE 2007 Joint Rail Conference and Internal Combustion Engine Division Spring Technical Conference, Pueblo, CO, USA, 2007.
13.
ZhaoW.LarsonK.PetermanR. J.BeckB. T.WuC.-H. J.Development of a Laser-Speckle Imaging Device to Determine the Transfer Length in Pretensioned Concrete Members. Precast Concrete Institute Journal, Vol. 57, No. 1, 2012, pp. 135–143. https://doi.org/10.15554/pcij.01012012.135.143
14.
BodapatiN. N. B.ZhaoW.PetermanR. J.WuC.-H. J.BeckB. T.HaynesM.HolsteJ. R.Influence of Indented Wire Geometry and Concrete Parameters on the Transfer Length in Prestressed Concrete Crossties. Presented at the 2013 Joint Rail Conference, Knoxville, TN, USA, 2013.
15.
ZhaoW.BeckB. T.PetermanR. J.MurphyR.WuC.-H. J.LeeG.A Direct Comparison of the Traditional Method and a New Approach in Determining 220 Transfer Lengths in Prestressed Concrete Railroad Ties. Presented at the 2013 Joint Rail Conference, Knoxville, TN, USA, 2013.
16.
ZhaoW.BeckB. T.PetermanR. J.WuC.-H. J.LeeG.BodapatiN. N. B.Determining Transfer Length in Pre-Tensioned Concrete Railroad Ties: Is a New Evaluation Method Needed?Presented at the ASME 2013 Rail Transportation Division Fall Technical Conference, Altoona, PA, USA, 2013.
17.
BodapatiN. N. B.PetermanR. J.BeckB. T.WuC.-H. J.Effect of Concrete Properties on Transfer Lengths in Concrete Rail-Road Ties. Presented at the 2014 Joint Rail Conference, Colorado Springs, CO, USA, 2014.
18.
ZhaoW.BeckB. T.PetermanR. J.WuC.-H. J.BodapatiN. N. B.LeeG.Reliable Transfer Length Assessment for Real-Time Monitoring of Railroad Crosstie Production. Presented at the 2014 Joint Rail Conference, Colorado Springs, CO, USA, 2014.
19.
MomeniA. F.Effect of Concrete Properties and Prestressing Steel Indentation Types on the Development Length and Flexural Capacity of Pretensioned Concrete Members. PhD thesis. Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, 2016.
20.
American Concrete Institute Committee 318. Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-19) and Commentary (ACI 318R-19). American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, MI, 2019.
21.
American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association (AREMA). Chapter 30, Ties. In Manual for Railway Engineering, The American Railway Engineering and Maintenance-of-Way Association, Landover, MD, 2020, p. 235.
22.
TimoshenkoS. P.History of Strength of Materials. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1953.
23.
MurrayM.Heavy Haul Sleeper Design—a Rational Cost-Saving Method. Presented at the IHHA 2015 Conference, Perth, WA, Australia, 2015.
24.
LinX.EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.RoadcapT. A.RuppertC.Load Quantification of the Wheel–Rail Interface of Rail Vehicles for the Infrastructure of Light Rail, Heavy Rail, and Commuter Rail Transit. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol. 232, No. 2, 2018, pp. 596–605. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954409716684266
25.
BastosJ. C.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.AndrawesB. O.Flexural Behavior of Concrete Crossties under Different Support Conditions. Journal of Transportation Engineering, Part A: Systems, Vol. 143, No. 12, 2017, p. 04017064. https://doi.org/10.1061/JTEPBS.0000097
26.
WolfH. E.QianY.EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.LangeD. A.Temperature-Induced Curl Behavior of Prestressed Concrete and Its Effect on Railroad Crossties. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 115, 2016, pp. 319–326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.039
27.
EdwardsJ. R.GaoZ.WolfH. E.DerschM. S.QianY.Quantification of Concrete Railway Sleeper Bending Moments Using Surface Strain Gauges. Measurement, Vol. 111, No. Supplement C, 2017, pp. 197–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.measurement.2017.07.029
28.
Van DykB. J.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.RuppertC. J.BarkanC. P. L.Load Characterization Techniques and Overview of Loading Environment in North America. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, Vol. 2448, No. 1, 2014, pp. 80–86. https://doi.org/10.3141/2448-10
29.
Quirós-OrozcoR. J.EdwardsJ. R.QianY.DerschM. S.Quantification of Loading Environment and Flexural Demand of Prestressed Concrete Crossties under Shared Corridor Operating Conditions. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2018. 2672(10): 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198118793500
30.
EdwardsJ. R.LiangY.BastosJ. C.DerschM. S.Development of a Parametric Model for the Prediction of Concrete Railway Crosstie Service Bending Moments. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol. 234, No. 10, 2019, pp. 1253–1264. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954409719888068
31.
GaoZ.WolfH. E.DerschM. S.QianY.EdwardsJ. R.Field Measurements and Proposed Analysis of Concrete Crosstie Bending Moments. Presented at the 2016 Annual AREMA Conference, Orlando, FL, USA, 2016.
32.
WolfH. E.EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.QianY.LangeD. A.Field Measurement of Bending Moments in Prestressed Concrete Monoblock Sleepers. Presented at the 11th World Congress on Railway Research, Milan, Italy, 2016.
33.
BastosJ. C.Álvarez-ReyesA.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.BarkanC. P. L.Laboratory Characterization of Structural Capacity of North American Heavy Haul Concrete Crossties. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2018. 2672(10): 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198118782250
34.
EdwardsJ. R.RuizA. E. C.CookA. A.DerschM. S.QianY.Quantifying Bending Moments in Rail-Transit Concrete Sleepers. American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 144, No. 3, 2018. https://doi.org/10.1061/JTEPBS.0000125
35.
EdwardsJ. R.de Oliveira LimaA.DerschM. S.Resilient Concrete Crosstie and Fastening System Designs for Light, Heavy, and Commuter Rail Transit. Publication FTA Report No. 0158. Federal Transit Administration, 2020.
36.
Van DykB. J.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.International Concrete Crosstie and Fastening System Survey–Final Results. Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C., 2012.
37.
ZakeriJ.-A.RezvaniF. H.Failures of Railway Concrete Sleepers During Service Life. International Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2012, pp. 1–5. https://doi.org/10.5923/j.ijcem.20120101.01
38.
TaherinezhadJ.SofiM.MendisP. A.NgoT.A Review of Behaviour of Prestressed Concrete Sleepers. Special Issue: Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 13, No. 1, 2013, pp. 1–16.
39.
FerdousW.ManaloA.Failures of Mainline Railway Sleepers and Suggested Remedies—Review of Current Practice. Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 44, 2014, pp. 17–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2014.04.020
40.
BastosJ. C.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.Determination of Critical Track Conditions and Their Impact on the Performance of Concrete Crossties and Fastening Systems. Presented at the AREMA 2015 Annual Conference, Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2015.
41.
YuH.JeongD.MarquisB.ColtmanM. N.Railroad Concrete Tie Failure Modes and Research Needs. Presented at 94th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2015.
42.
KumarA. S.MuthukannanM.An Examination on Performance of Railway Sleepers. International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, Vol. 8, No. 4S2, 2019, pp. 37–44. https://doi.org/10.35940/ijrte.D1010.1284S219
43.
de Souza LimaE. H.CarneiroA. M. P.A Review of Failures of Railway Monoblock Prestressed Concrete Sleepers. Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 137, 2022, p. 106389. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106389
44.
El-sayedH. M.FayedM. N.RiadH. S.ZohnyH. N.A Review of the Structural Performance of Prestressed Monoblock Concrete Sleepers in Ballasted Railway Tracks. Engineering Failure Analysis, Vol. 140, 2022, p. 106522. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2022.106522
45.
MayvilleR. A.JiangL.ShermanM.Performance Evaluation of Concrete Railroad Ties on the Northeast Corridor. Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C., 2014.
46.
Zeta-Tech. Assessment of Concrete Tie Life on US Freight Railroads. Report Submitted to the Railway Tie Association, Cherry Hill, NJ, 2010.
47.
CollepardiM.A State-of-the-Art Review on Delayed Ettringite Attack on Concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 25, No. 4, 2003, pp. 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0958-9465(02)00080-X
48.
SahuS.ThaulowN.Delayed Ettringite Formation in Swedish Concrete Railroad Ties. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 34, No. 9, 2004, pp. 1675–1681. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2004.01.027
49.
MielenzR. C.MarusinS. L.HimeW. G.JugovicZ. T.Investigation of Prestressed Concrete Raiway Tie Distress. Concrete International, Vol. 17, No. 12, 1995, pp. 62–68.
50.
QinhuaJ.WeiqingL.LiangT.Investigations on Concrete Railway Ties Suffering from Alkali-Silica Reaction. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 27, No. 1, 1997, pp. 107–113. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0008-8846(96)00186-X
51.
ThunH.UtsiS.ElfgrenL.Load Carrying Capacity of Cracked Concrete Railway Sleepers. Structural Concrete, Vol. 9, No. 3, 2008, pp. 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1680/stco.2007.00024
52.
YuH.Estimating Deterioration in the Concrete Tie-Ballast Interface Based on Vertical Tie Deflection Profile: A Numerical Study. Presented at the 2016 Joint Rail Conference, Columbia, SC, USA, 2016.
53.
VemugantiS.MoreuF.Survey about Bottom Surface Abrasion of Concrete Crossties. Presented at 96th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2017.
54.
RidingK. A.PetermanR. J.GuthrieS.BruesekeM.MosaviH.DailyK.Risovi-HendricksonW.Environmental and Track Factors that Contribute to Abrasion Damage. Proc., 2018 Joint Rail Conference, American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Pittsburgh, PA, 2018.
55.
BastosJ. C.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.Degradation Mechanisms of Concrete Due to Water Flow in Cracks of Prestressed Railroad Sleepers under Cyclic Loading. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 34, No. 4, 2022, p. 04022025. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004144
56.
MarquisB.LeBlancJ.YuH.JeongD.Volpe Report on CSX Train Derailment on MN Tracks. National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C., 2014.
57.
ZemanJ. C.EdwardsJ. R.LangeD. A.BarkanC. P.Hydraulic Pressure Cracking in Rail Seats of Concrete Crossties. ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 109, No. 6, 2012, pp. 639–646.
58.
KernesR.The Mechanics of Abrasion on Concrete Crosstie Rail Seats. MS thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2014.
59.
GreveM. J.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.BarkanC. P. L.ThompsonH.SussmannT. R.McHenryM. T.Examination of the Effect of Concrete Crosstie Rail Seat Deterioration on Rail Seat Load Distribution. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2015. 2476: 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3141/2476-01
60.
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB). Railroad Accident Brief (Derailment of Amtrak Passenger Train No. 27). National Transportation Safety Board, Washington, D.C., 2006.
61.
MarquisB. P.MuhlangerM.JeongD. Y.Effect of Wheel/Rail Loads on Concrete Tie Stresses and Rail Rollover. Proc., ASME 2011 Fall Technical Conference, Minneapolis, MN, USA, 2011.
62.
YuH.Causes and Prevention of Splitting/Bursting Failure of Concrete Crossties: A Computational Study. Presented at the AREMA 2017 Annual Conference, Indianapolis, IN, USA, 2017.
63.
MomeniA. F.PetermanR. J.BeckB. T.Prediction Model for Development Length of Indented Prestressing Wires. ACI Structural Journal, Vol. 115, No. 2, 2018, pp. 525–534. https://doi.org/10.14359/51701119
64.
JohS.-H.HwangS.KangT.-H.ParkC.-S.LeeI.-W.Nondestructive Identification of Freezing-Induced Cracks in Concrete Sleepers of High-Speed Railways in South Korea. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2010. 2159: 98–109. https://doi.org/10.3141/2159-13
65.
GrassieS. L.CoxS. J.Dynamic Response of Railway Track with Flexible Sleepers to High Frequency Vertical Excitation. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, Vol. 198, No. 7, 1984, pp. 117–124.
66.
KaewunruenS.RemennikovA. M.Dynamic Crack Propagations in Prestressed Concrete Sleepers in Railway Track Systems Subjected to Severe Impact Loads. Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 136, No. 6, 2010, pp. 749–754. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000152
67.
EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.KernesR. G.Improved Concrete Crosstie and Fastening Systems for US High Speed Passenger Rail and Joint Corridors—Technical Report (Volume 2). Publication DOT/FRA/ORD-17/23. US Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C., 2017.
68.
RabbiM. F.BruzekR.SussmannT. R.ThompsonH. B.MishraD.A Study of Vertical Tie Reaction Forces in Ballasted Railroad Tracks through Field Instrumentation and Numerical Modeling. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol. 237, No. 1, 2022, pp. 65–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/09544097221089406
69.
ThompsonI.HughB.AlturkR.MishraD.Rail-Mounted Strain Gauges for Tie Reaction Measurement Under Dynamic Loading [Research Results]. Publication RR 22-08. Federal Railroad Administration; ENSCO, Inc. Applied Technology and Engineering Division; Oklahoma State University, Washington, D.C., 2022.
70.
FengB.LiuZ.TutumluerE.HuangH.Data-Driven Railway Crosstie Support Condition Prediction Using Deep Residual Neural Network: Algorithm and Application. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2022. 2676(3): 160–171. https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981211049423
71.
McHenryM. T.Pressure Measurement at the Ballast-Tie Interface of Railroad Track Using Matrix Based Tactile Surface Sensors. Master’s thesis. University of Kentucky, Department of Civil Engineering, Lexington, KY, 2013.
72.
SongW.ShuX.HuangB.SunY.GongH.ClarkeD.Pressure Distribution Under Steel and Timber Crossties in Railway Tracks. American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 143, No. 9, 2017, p. 04017046. https://doi.org/10.1061/JTEPBS.0000075
73.
Quirós-OrozcoR. J.Prestressed Concrete Railway Crosstie Support Variability and Its Effect on Flexural Demand. Master’s thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Urbana, IL, 2018.
74.
WolfH. E.Flexural Behavior of Prestressed Concrete Monoblock Crossties. Master’s thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2015.
75.
Canga RuizA. E.QianY.EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.Analysis of the Temperature Effect on Concrete Crosstie Flexural Behavior. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 196, 2019, pp. 362–374. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.11.065
76.
GaoZ.QianY.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.Compressive Stress Distribution in Prestressed Concrete and Its Effect on Railroad Crosstie Design. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 151, 2017, pp. 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.186
77.
Canga RuizA. E.EdwardsJ. R.QianY.DerschM. S.Probabilistic Framework for the Assessment of the Flexural Design of Concrete Sleepers. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol. 234, No. 7, 2020, pp. 691–701. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954409719854569
78.
EdwardsJ. R.Canga RuizA. E.BastosJ. C.LiangY.DerschM. S.Use of Field Flexural Demand Data for Reliability-Based Analysis and Design of Concrete Railroad Sleepers. Frontiers in Built Environment, Vol. 6, 2020, p. 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fbuil.2020.582948
79.
BastosJ. C.Flexural Distress and Degradation Mechanisms in Pretensioned Concrete Beams and Railroad Crossties. PhD thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2020.
80.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). Track Safety Standards. In 49 CFR Part 213 Track Safety Standards (10-1-11 Edition), U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, D.C., pp. 100–154.
81.
HarriesK. A.Structural Testing of Prestressed Concrete Girders from the Lake View Drive Bridge. Journal of Bridge Engineering, Vol. 14, No. 2, 2009, pp. 78–92. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0702(2009)14:2(78)
82.
GaoY.LoPrestiJ.Concrete Tie Life Extension: Interim Report. Publication TD-21-028. Transportation Technology Center, Inc., Pueblo, CO, 2021.
83.
ThompsonM. R.Mechanistic-Empirical Flexible Pavement Design: An Overview. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1996. 1539: 1–5.
84.
Applied Research Associates (ARA). Guide for Mechanistic-Empirical Design of New and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. Applied Research Associates (ARA), Inc, ERES Division, Champaign, IL, 2004.
85.
HuangY. H.Pavement Analysis and Design. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 2004.
86.
Von QuintusH. L.MoulthropJ. S.Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide Flexible Pavement Performance Prediction Models for Montana—Volume I Executive Research Summary. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA), Washington, D.C., 2007.
87.
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide. AASHTO, Washington, D.C., 2008.
CsengeM. V.LinX.WolfH.DerschM. S.EdwardsJ. R.Mechanistic Design of Concrete Monoblock Crossties for Rail Transit Loading Conditions. Presented at the American Public Transportation Association 2015 Rail Conference, Salt Lake City, UT, USA, 2015.
90.
Van DykB. J.EdwardsJ. R.RuppertC. J.JrBarkanC. P.Considerations for Mechanistic Design of Concrete Sleepers and Elastic Fastening Systems in North America. Presented at the 10th International Heavy Haul Association Conference, New Delhi, India, 2013.
91.
EdwardsJ. R.Quirós-OrozcoR. J.BastosJ. C.DerschM. S.TutumluerE.Vision for Mechanistic-Empirical Railway Track System and Component Analysis and Design. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2021. 2675(10): 41–55. https://doi.org/10.1177/03611981211009881
92.
HarrisonH. D.SeligE. T.DeanF. E.StewartH. E.Correlation of Concrete Tie Track Performance in Revenue Service and at the Facility for Accelerated Service Testing. Volume I - A Detailed Summary. Publication FRA/ORD-84/02.1. Battelle Columbus Laboratories, Columbus, OH, 1984.
93.
GrasséJ. S.WeiS.DerschM. S.KuchmaD.LangeD. A.EdwardsJ. R.KuchmaD. A.Investigating the Concrete Crosstie and Fastening System Load Path through Field Instrumentation. Presented at the AREMA 2013 Annual Conference, Indianapolis, IN, USA, 2013.
94.
EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.KernesR. G.Improved Concrete Crosstie and Fastening Systems for US High Speed Passenger Rail and Joint Corridors—Project Summary Report (Volume 1). Publication DOT/FRA/ORD-17/23. US Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C., 2017.
95.
LovettA. H.Railroad Decision Support Tools for Track Maintenance. Doctoral thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Urbana, IL, 2017.
96.
KaewunruenS.NgamkhanongC.NgJ.Influence of Time-Dependent Material Degradation on Life Cycle Serviceability of Interspersed Railway Tracks Due to Moving Train Loads. Engineering Structures, Vol. 199, 2019, p. 109625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2019.109625
97.
NgamkhanongC.WeyC. M.KaewunruenS.Buckling Analysis of Interspersed Railway Tracks. Applied Sciences, Vol. 10, No. 9, 2020, p. 3091. https://doi.org/10.3390/app10093091
98.
de Oliveira LimaA.DerschM. S.LeeJ.EdwardsJ. R.Track Modulus Assessment of Engineered Interspersed Concrete Sleepers in Ballasted Track. Applied Sciences, Vol. 11, No. 1, 2020, p. 261. https://doi.org/10.3390/app11010261
99.
JingG.SiahkouhiM.EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.HoultN. A.Smart Railway Sleepers - a Review of Recent Developments, Challenges, and Future Prospects. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 271, 2021, p. 15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121533
100.
XuJ.ButlerL. J.ElshafieM. Z.Experimental and Numerical Investigation of the Performance of Self-Sensing Concrete Sleepers. Structural Health Monitoring, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2020, pp. 66–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921719834506
101.
PeruzziF.Sostenibilità Ambientale e Economia Circolare. Bachelor’s thesis. University of Padua, Padua, Italy, 2018.
102.
EdwardsJ. R.MechitovK. A.BarbosaI. G.de Oliveira LimaA.SpencerB. F.JrTutumluerE.DerschM. S.A Roadmap for Sustainable Smart Track—Wireless Continuous Monitoring of Railway Track Condition. Sustainabilty, Vol. 13, No. 7456, 2021, p. 16. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137456
103.
ZhangW.ZhengQ.AshourA.HanB.Self-Healing Cement Concrete Composites for Resilient Infrastructures: A Review. Composites Part B: Engineering, Vol. 189, 2020, p. 107892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2020.107892
104.
ShinH.-O.YangJ.-M.YoonY.-S.MitchellD.Mix Design of Concrete for Prestressed Concrete Sleepers Using Blast Furnace Slag and Steel Fibers. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 74, 2016, pp. 39–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2016.08.007
105.
ShinH.-O.YooD.-Y.YoonY.-S.Enhancing the Resistance of Prestressed Concrete Sleepers to Multiple Impacts Using Steel Fibers. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 166, 2018, pp. 356–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.095
106.
SadeghiJ.Tolou KianA. R.KhabbaziA. S.Improvement of Mechanical Properties of Railway Track Concrete Sleepers Using Steel Fibers. Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 28, No. 11, 2016, p. 04016131. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001646
107.
YangJ.-M.ShinH.-O.YoonY.-S.MitchellD.Benefits of Blast Furnace Slag and Steel Fibers on the Static and Fatigue Performance of Prestressed Concrete Sleepers. Engineering Structures, Vol. 134, 2017, pp. 317–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2016.12.045
108.
RoeslerJ. R.LangeD. A.AltoubatS. A.RiederK.-A.UlreichG. R.Fracture of Plain and Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Slabs under Monotonic Loading. American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 5, 2004, pp. 452–460. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2004)16:5(452)
109.
MasterA.Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced Concrete in Railway Crossties. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2017.
110.
RizosD. C.High-Strength Reduced-Modulus High Performance Concrete (HSRM-HPC) for Prestressed Concrete Tie Applications. Presented at the 2016 Joint Rail Conference, Columbia, SC, USA, 2016.
111.
ZeitouniA. I.RizosD. C.QianY.Benefits of High Strength Reduced Modulus (HSRM) Concrete Railroad Ties Under Center Binding Support Conditions. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 192, 2018, pp. 210–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.10.124
112.
BodapatiN. N. B.PetermanR. J.ZhaoW.BeckT.WuC.-H. J.HolsteJ.ArnoldM.BentemanR.SchweigerR.Transfer-Length Measurements on Concrete Railroad Ties Fabricated with 15 Different Prestressing Reinforcements. Presented at the PCI Convention and National Bridge Conference, Grapevine, TX, USA, 2013.
113.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). Determining Bond-Slip Characteristics of Prestressing Tendons with Varying Geometries in Two Concrete Mixtures. Publication RR 19-13. Washington, D.C., 2019.
114.
SavićA.DastgerdiA. S.PetermanR. J.BeckB. T.The Influence of Wire Type Indentation on Longitudinal Splitting in Pre-Stressed Concrete. Advanced Materials Research, Vol. 1165, 2021, pp. 65–86. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.1165.65
115.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). A Wire Indent Profiling System for the Assessment of Crosstie Bond and Splitting Propensity. Publication RR 19-06. Washington, D.C., 2019.
116.
PolydorouT.RidingK. A.PetermanR. J.Interlaboratory Study of the Standard Test Method for Evaluating Bond of Seven-Wire Steel Prestressing Strand. PCI Journal, Vol. 61, No. 4, 2016, pp. 53–64.
117.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). New Test to Determine the Bond Quality of Reinforcements for Concrete Railroad Ties. Publication RR 21-10. Washington, D.C., 2021.
118.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). Prestressing Steel and Concrete Variables Affecting Transfer Length in Pretensioned Concrete Crossties. Publication RR 21-03. Washington, D.C., 2021.
119.
SavićA.DastgerdiA. S.BeckT.PetermanR. J.RobertsonA.The Influence of Concrete Cover, Type of Wire Indentation and Concrete Mix on Bond Between Steel and Concrete in Prismatic Prestressed Concrete Members. Advanced Engineering Forum, Vol. 39, 2021, pp. 103–126. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AEF.39.103
120.
DastgerdiA. S.RidingK.PetermanR. J.BeckB. T.Material Characteristics Evaluation of Existing Pre-Stressed Concrete Railroad Ties After Service Period. Presented at the 2018 Joint Rail Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, 2018.
121.
ShinM.YuH.Numerical Evaluation of Splitting Performance of Prestressed Concrete Prisms with Larger Diameter Prestressing Wires. Presented at the 2019 Joint Rail Conference, Snowbird, UT, 2019.
122.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). Remaining Prestress Force and Center Negative Capacity of Ties Removed from Track after 25 Years. Publication RR 21-11. Washington, D.C., 2021.
123.
Shafiei DastgerdiA.SavicA.PetermanR. J.RidingK.BeckB. T.Evaluation of Splitting Crack Propagation in Pre-Stressed Concrete Ties Made with Different Types of Coarse Aggregate. Presented at the 2019 Joint Rail Conference, Snowbird, UT, USA, 2019.
124.
SavicA.PetermanR. J.BeckB. T.RidingK. A.Developing a Prism Qualification Test to Ensure Adequate Splitting Resistance in Pretensioned Concrete Railroad Ties. Publication Rural Railroad Safety Center Report No: KSU-21-10. Rural Railroad Safety Center, Kansas State University., Manhattan, KS, 2021.
125.
AlbahttitiM. T.GhadbanA. A.RidingK. A.LangeD.Air Entrainment and the Fabrication of Concrete Railroad Ties. Presented at the 2015 Joint Rail Conference, San Jose, CA, USA, 2015.
126.
RidingK. A.LangeD. A.CastanedaD.KochJ.AlbahttitiM.GhadbanA.SongY., et al. Material and Manufacturing Requirements for Freeze-Thaw Durable Concrete Railroad Ties: Volume II. Publication DOT/FRA/ORD-18/31. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), Washington, D.C., 2018.
127.
SongY.DasA.LangeD. A.MosaviH.RidingK.A Performance-Based Approach to Concrete Freeze-Thaw Durability. Presented at the 2018 Joint Rail Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, USA, 2018.
128.
RidingK. A.LangeD. A.CastanedaD.KochJ.AlbahttitiM.GhadbanA.SongY.ZouR.Material and Manufacturing Requirements for Freeze-Thaw Durable Concrete Railroad Ties: Volume I. Publication DOT/FRA/ORD-18/31. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), Washington, D.C., 2018.
129.
KernesR. G.ShurpaliA. A.EdwardsJ. R.DerschM. S.LangeD. A.BarkanC. P. L.Investigation of the Mechanics of Rail Seat Deterioration and Methods to Improve the Abrasion Resistance of Concrete Sleeper Rail Seats. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol. 228, No. 6, 2014, pp. 581–589. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954409714530911
130.
RomeroM. J. G.EdwardsJ. R.BarkanC. P. L.WilsonB.MediavillaJ.Advancements in Fastening System Design for North American Concrete Crossties in Heavy-Haul Service. Presented at the AREMA 2010 Annual Conference & Exposition, Orlando, FL, USA, 2010.
131.
Van DamE. Abrasion Resistance of Concrete and the Use of High Performance Concrete for Concrete Railway Crossties. Master’s thesis. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Urbana, IL, 2014.
132.
ShurpaliA. A.EdwardsJ. R.KernesR. G.LangeD. A.BarkanC. P. L.Investigation of Material Improvements to Mitigate the Effects of the Abrasion Mechanism of Concrete Crosstie Rail Seat Deterioration. American Society of Civil Engineers Journal of Transportation Engineering, Vol. 140, No. 2, 2014, p. 04013009. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)TE.1943-5436.0000616
133.
ShurpaliA. A.EdwardsJ. R.KernesR. G.LangeD. A.BarkanC. P.Improving the Abrasion Resistance of Concrete to Mitigate Concrete Crosstie Rail Seat Deterioration (RSD). American Society of Testing Materials International Materials Performance and Characterization, Vol. 6, No. 1, 2017, pp. 521–534. https://doi.org/10.1520/MPC20170051
134.
MarquisB.LeBlancJ.YuH.JeongD.CSX Derailment on Metro-North Tracks in Bronx, NY July 19, 2013. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Office of Research, Washington, D.C., 2014.
135.
RidingK. A.PetermanR. J.GuthrieS.BruesekeM.MosaviH.DailyK.A Study of Environmental and Track Factors That Contribute to Abrasion Damage of Concrete Ties. Publication DOT/FRA/ORD-19/38. Federal Railroad Administration (FRA), Washington, D.C., 2019.
136.
GräbeP. J.MtshotanaB. F.SebatiM. M.ThünemannE. Q.The Effects of Under-Sleeper Pads on Sleeper-Ballast Interaction. Journal of the South African Institution of Civil Engineering, Vol. 58, No. 2, 2016, pp. 35–41. https://doi.org/10.17159/2309-8775/2016/v58n2a4
137.
BransonJ. M.DerschM. S.de Oliveira LimaA.EdwardsJ. R.Cesar BastosJ.Identification of the Under-Tie Pad Material Characteristics for Stress State Reduction. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F: Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit, Vol. 234, No. 10, 2020, pp. 1227–1237. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954409719890156
138.
LoboC.LemayL.OblaK.Performance-Based Specifications for Concrete. Building Integration Solutions, 2012, pp. 1–13. ASCE.
139.
LemayL.LoboC.OblaK.Sustainable Concrete: The Role of Performance-Based Specifications. Structures Congress 2013, Pittsburgh, PA, 2013, pp. 2693–2704. ASCE.
140.
BeckB. T.PetermanR. J.WuC.-H. J.BodapatiN. N. B.In-Plant Testing of a New Multi-Camera Transfer Length Measurement System for Monitoring Quality Control of Railroad Crosstie Production. Presented at the 2015 Joint Rail Conference, San Jose, CA, 2015.
141.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). Automated System for Concrete Crosstie Transfer Length Measurement. Publication RR 21-17. Washington, D.C., 2021.
142.
SuttonM. A.OrteuJ.-J.SchreierH. W.Image Correlation for Shape, Motion and Deformation Measurements: Basic Concepts, Theory and Applications. Springer, New York, NY, 2009.
143.
BartelmoS.RajanS.LiN.SuttonM.RizosD. C.Digital Image Correlation Techniques for Prestressed Concrete Tie Quality Control. Presented at the 2016 Joint Rail Conference, Columbia, SC, 2016.
144.
AbdulqaderA.RizosD. C.Advantages of Using Digital Image Correlation Techniques in Uniaxial Compression Tests. Results in Engineering, Vol. 6, 2020, p. 100109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2020.100109
145.
RajanS.SuttonM. A.RizosD. C.OrtizA. R.ZeitouniA.CaicedoJ. M.A Stereovision Deformation Measurement System for Transfer Length Estimates in Prestressed Concrete. Experimental Mechanics, Vol. 58, No. 7, 2018, pp. 1035–1048. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11340-017-0357-0
146.
OmondiB.AggelisD. G.SolH.SittersC.Improved Crack Monitoring in Structural Concrete by Combined Acoustic Emission and Digital Image Correlation Techniques. Structural Health Monitoring, Vol. 15, No. 3, 2016, pp. 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475921716636806
147.
Federal Railroad Administration (FRA). Inspection of Concrete Ties Using Sonic/Ultrasonic Impact Velocity and Impact Echo Measurements and FRA. Publication DOT/FRA/ORD-18/32. U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Railroad Administration, Washington, D.C., 2018.
148.
EvaniS. K.SpalvierA.PopovicsJ. S.Air-Coupled Ultrasonic Assessment of Concrete Rail Ties. NDT & E International, Vol. 123, 2021, p. 102511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ndteint.2021.102511
149.
QianY.DerschM. S.GaoZ.EdwardsJ. R.Railroad Infrastructure 4.0: Development and Application of an Automatic Ballast Support Condition Assessment System. Transportation Geotechnics, Vol. 19, 2019, pp. 19–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trgeo.2019.01.002
150.
GaoY.QianY.StoffelsS. M.HuangH.LiuS.Characterization of Railroad Crosstie Movements by Numerical Modeling and Field Investigation. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 131, 2017, pp. 542–551. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.11.067
151.
SiahkouhiM.WangJ.HanX.AelaP.NiY.-Q.JingG.Railway Ballast Track Hanging Sleeper Defect Detection Using a Smart CNT Self-Sensing Concrete Railway Sleeper. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 399, 2023, p. 132487. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.132487
