Driving simulators can provide safe real-world driving conditions that may help researchers study driving behavior; however, driving simulator sickness (DSS) has been recognized as one of the most frequent challenges associated with using driving simulators. The DSS issue may affect the validity and reliability of results obtained during the driving simulator experience. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the potential consequences of DSS in the virtual environment of a driving simulator. The goal of this study is to analyze DSS symptoms among participants of a driving simulator by their demographics. The samples of four simulator studies were combined, including a total of 259 participants who were recruited from different socio-demographic backgrounds and drove a fixed-base driving simulator. All these studies used the same proportion of mixed urban and suburban content in designing the simulation environments of the experiments. A DSS questionnaire based on the standard Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ) has been used to measure the severity of DSS symptoms—general discomfort, fatigue, headache, eyestrain, blurred vision, salivation, sweating, dizziness, and nausea—among participants. This study applies zero-inflated ordered probit and ordered probit models to evaluate the possible statistical relationships between demographic characteristics and experiment duration, and DSS symptoms. The results show that there is a positive direct statistical relationship between the duration of the experiment and DSS. Also, older participants have more general discomfort, fatigue, blurred vision, and headache symptoms with DSS than do younger ones. Similarly, female participants experience headache and nausea symptoms more than men do.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
ClassenS.BewernitzM.ShechtmanO.Driving Simulator Sickness: An Evidence-Based Review of the Literature. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 65, No. 2, 2011, pp. 179–188. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2011.000802.
2.
CrislerM. C.BrooksJ. O.VenhovensP. J.HealyS. L.HirthV. A.MckeeJ. A.DuckworthK.Seniors’ and Physicians’ Attitudes Toward Using Driving Simulators in Clinical Settings. Occupational Therapy in Health Care, Vol. 26, No. 1, 2012, pp. 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3109/07380577.2011.634889.
3.
GibbonsC.MullenN.WeaverB.RegulyP.BédardM.One- and Three-Screen Driving Simulator Approaches to Evaluate Driving Capacity: Evidence of Congruence and Participants’ Endorsement. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. 68, No. 3, 2014, pp. 344–352. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.2014.010322.
Reed JonesJ. Prediction and prevention of simulator sickness: An examination of individual differences, participant behaviours, and controlled interventions. Doctoral thesis. The University of Guelph, 2011.
6.
McCauleyM. E.Research Issues in Simulator Sickness: Proceedings of a Workshop. National Academies, 1984.
7.
BalkS. A.BertolaM. A.InmanV. W.Simulator Sickness Questionnaire: Twenty Years Later. Proc., 2013 Driving Assessment Conference. The University of Iowa, 2013. https://doi.org/10.17077/drivingassessment.1498.
8.
BaltzleyD. R.KennedyR. S.BerbaumK. S.LilienthalM. G.GowerD. W.The Time Course of Postflight Simulator Sickness Symptoms. Aviation, Space, and Environmental medicine, Vol. 60, No. 11, 1989, pp. 1043–1048.
9.
CasaliJ. G.Vehicular Simulation-Induced Sickness. Volume 1. An Overview. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg Department of Industrial Engineering and Operations Research, 1985.
10.
CobbS. V. G.NicholsS.RamseyA.WilsonJ. R.Virtual Reality-Induced Symptoms and Effects (VRISE). Presence, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1999, pp. 169–186. https://doi.org/10.1162/105474699566152.
11.
MullenN. W.WeaverB.RiendeauJ. A.MorrisonL. E.BédardM.Driving Performance and Susceptibility to Simulator Sickness: Are They Related?American Journal of Occupational Therapy, Vol. Vol. 64, No. 2, 2010, pp. 288–295. https://doi.org/10.5014/ajot.64.2.288.
12.
Brook-CarterN.LukeT.ParkesA.Evaluating the Use of a Truck Simulator for Training Drivers in Safe and Fuel Efficient Driving. Proc., European Transport Conference (ETC) 2004 Held 4-6 October 2004, Strasbourg, France, 2004.
KennedyR.HettingerL.LilienthalM.Simulator Sickness. Motion and Space Sickness, 1990, pp. 317–341.
15.
MollenhauerM. A.Simulator Adaptation Syndrome Literature Review. Realtime Technologies Inc., Royal Oak, Mich., 2004.
16.
StonerH. A.FisherD. L.MollenhauerM.Simulator and Scenario Factors Influencing Simulator Sickness. Handbook of Driving Simulation for Engineering, Medicine, and Psychology, 2011, pp. 14–24.
AdlerJ. L.ReckerW. W.McNallyM. G.A Conflict Model and Interactive Simulator (FASTCARS) for Predicting Enroute Driver Behavior in Response to Real-Time Traffic Condition Information. Transportation, Vol. 20, No. 2, 1993, pp. 83–106. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01307054.
19.
RiccioG. E.StoffregenT. A.An Ecological Theory of Motion Sickness and Postural Instability. Ecological Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1991, pp. 195–240. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326969eco0303_2.
20.
StoffregenT. A.RiccioG. E.An Ecological Critique of the Sensory Conflict Theory of Motion Sickness. Ecological Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1991, pp. 159–194. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326969eco0303_1
21.
Warwick-EvansL. A.SymonsN.FitchT.BurrowsL.Evaluating Sensory Conflict and Postural Instability. Theories of Motion Sickness. Brain Research Bulletin, Vol. 47, No. 5, 1998, pp. 465–469. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0361-9230(98)00090-2.
22.
ReinhardR.RutrechtH. M.HengstenbergP.TutulmazE.GeisslerB.HechtH.MuttrayA.The Best Way to Assess Visually Induced Motion Sickness in a Fixed-Base Driving Simulator. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Vol. 48, 2017, pp. 74–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2017.05.005.
23.
MatasN. A.NettelbeckT.BurnsN. R.Dropout during a Driving Simulator Study: A Survival Analysis. Journal of Safety Research, Vol. 55, 2015, pp. 159–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsr.2015.08.004.
HancockP. A.VincenziD. A.WiseJ. A.MoulouaM.Human Factors in Simulation and Training. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla., 2008. https://doi.org/1420072846.
26.
HeinC. M.Driving Simulators: Six Years of Hands-On Experience at Hughes Aircraft Company. Proc., Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 37, No. 9, 1993, pp. 607–611. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193129303700920.
27.
HoffmanR. B.MolinoJ. A.InmanV. W.Driving Simulator Sickness Management at Turner-Fairbank Highway Research Center. Proc., Driving Simulation Conference, ISSN, Dearborn, Mich., 2003.
28.
KawanoN.IwamotoK.EbeK.AleksicB.NodaA.UmegakiH.KuzuyaM.LidakaT.OzakiN.Slower Adaptation to Driving Simulator and Simulator Sickness in Older Adults Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research, Vol. 24, No. 3, 2012, pp. 285–289. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf03325260.
29.
KeshavarzB.RamkhalawansinghR.HaycockB.ShahabS.CamposJ. L.Comparing Simulator Sickness in Younger and Older Adults during Simulated Driving under Different Multisensory Conditions. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Vol. 54, 2018, pp. 47–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2018.01.007.
30.
ParkG. D.AllenR. W.FiorentinoD.RosenthalT. J.CookM. L.Simulator Sickness Scores According to Symptom Susceptibility, Age, and Gender for an Older Driver Assessment Study. Proc., Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 50, No. 26, 2006, pp. 2702–2706. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193120605002607.
31.
DomeyerJ. E.CassavaughN. D.BacksR. W.The Use of Adaptation to Reduce Simulator Sickness in Driving Assessment and Research. Accident Analysis & Prevention, Vol. 53, 2013, pp. 127–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2012.12.039.
32.
KaberD.ZhangY.JinS.MosalyP.GarnerM.Effects of Hazard Exposure and Roadway Complexity on Young and Older Driver Situation Awareness and Performance. Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, Vol. 15, No. 5, 2012, pp. 600–611. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trf.2012.06.002.
33.
StoffregenT. A.ChangC. H.ChenF. C.ZengW. J.Effects of Decades of Physical Driving on Body Movement and Motion Sickness during Virtual Driving. PLoS One, Vol. 12, No. 11, 2017, p. e0187120. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0187120.
34.
Milleville-PennelI.CharronC.Do Mental Workload and Presence Experienced when Driving a Real Car Predispose Drivers to Simulator Sickness? An Exploratory Study. Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 74, 2015, pp. 192–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2014.10.021.
35.
BioccaF.Will Simulation Sickness Slow Down the Diffusion of Virtual Environment Technology?Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1992, pp. 334–343.
36.
GarciaA.BaldwinC.DworskyM.Gender Differences in Simulator Sickness in Fixed- versus Rotating-Base Driving Simulator. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 54, No. 19, 2010, pp. 1551–1555. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193121005401941.
37.
JaegerB. K.MourantR. R.Comparison of Simulator Sickness Using Static and Dynamic Walking Simulators. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 45, No. 27, 2001, pp. 1896–1900. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193120104502709.
38.
MourantR. R.ThattacherryT. R.Simulator Sickness in a Virtual Environments Driving Simulator. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 44, No. 5, 2000, pp. 534–537. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193120004400513.
39.
StanneyK. M.KingdonK. S.KennedyR. S.Dropouts and Aftereffects: Examining General Accessibility to Virtual Environment Technology. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 46, No. 26, 2002, pp. 2114–2118. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193120204602603.
40.
FrankL. H.CasaliJ. G.WierwilleW. W.Effects of Visual Display and Motion System Delays on Operator Performance and Uneasiness in a Driving Simulator. Human Factors, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1988, pp. 201–217.
41.
Ihemedu-SteinkeQ. C.RangelovaS.WeberM.ErbachR.MeixnerG.MarsdenN.Simulation Sickness Related to Virtual Reality Driving Simulation. Springer International Publishing, Cham, 2017.
42.
SlickR. F.TranT. Q.CadyE. T.Adaptation to a Motion-Based and Non-Motion-Based Simulator. Proc., Third International Driving Symposium on Human Factors in Driver Assessment, Training and Vehicle Design, Rockport, Maine, 2005.
43.
LamptonD. R.KolasinskiE. M.KnerrB. W.BlissJ. P.BaileyJ. H.WitmerB. G.Side Effects and Aftereffects of Immersion in Virtual Environments. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 38, No. 18, 1994, pp. 1154–1157. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193129403801802.
44.
ReganM. A.TriggsT. J.GodleyS. T.Evaluation of a Novice Driver CD-Rom Based Training Program: A Simulator Study. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 44, No. 11, 2000, pp. 334–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193120004401101.
45.
StanneyK. M.HaleK. S.NahmensI.KennedyR. S.What to Expect from Immersive Virtual Environment Exposure: Influences of Gender, Body Mass Index, and Past Experience. Human Factors, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2003, pp. 504–520. https://doi.org/10.1518/hfes.45.3.504.27254.
46.
DziudaŁ.BiernackiM. P.BaranP. M.TruszczyńskiO. E.The Effects of Simulated Fog and Motion on Simulator Sickness in a Driving Simulator and the Duration of After-Effects. Applied Ergonomics, Vol. 45, No. 3, 2014, pp. 406–412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2013.05.003.
47.
JohnsonD.Introduction to and Review of Simulator Sickness Research. U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral & Social Sciences, Fort Rucker, Ala., 2005.
48.
KolasinskiE. M.Simulator Sickness in Virtual Environments. No. ARI-TR-1027. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social Sciences Alexandria Va., 1995.
49.
CurryR.ArtzB.CatheyL.GrantP.GreenbergJ.Kennedy SSQ Results: Fixed-vs Motion-Based FORD Simulators. Proc., Driving Simulation Conference, Paris, France, 2002.
50.
KlüverM.HerrigelC.PreußS.SchönerH. P.HechtH.Comparing the Incidence of Simulator Sickness in Five Different Driving Simulators. Proc., Driving Simulation Conference, Tubingen, 2015.
51.
AykentB.MerienneF.GuilletC.PaillotD.KemenyA.Motion Sickness Evaluation and Comparison for a Static Driving Simulator and a Dynamic Driving Simulator. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part D: Journal of Automobile Engineering, Vol. 228, No. 7, 2014, pp. 818–829. https://doi.org/10.1177/0954407013516101.
52.
IJsselsteijnW.De RidderH.FreemanJ.AvonsS. E.BouwhuisD.Effects of Stereoscopic Presentation, Image Motion, and Screen Size on Subjective and Objective Corroborative Measures of Presence. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, Vol. 10, No. 3, 2001, pp. 298–311. https://doi.org/10.1162/105474601300343621.
53.
PauschR.CreaT.ConwayM.A Literature Survey for Virtual Environments: Military Flight Simulator Visual Systems and Simulator Sickness. Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments, Vol. 1, No. 3, 1992, pp. 344–363. https://doi.org/10.1162/pres.1992.1.3.344.
54.
SharplesS.CobbS.MoodyA.WilsonJ. R.Virtual Reality Induced Symptoms and Effects (VRISE): Comparison of Head Mounted Display (HMD), Desktop and Projection Display Systems. Displays, Vol. 29, No. 2, 2008, pp. 58–69.
55.
JonesM. B.KennedyR. S.StanneyK. M.Toward Systematic Control of Cybersickness. Presence, Vol. 13, No. 5, 2004, pp. 589–600. https://doi.org/10.1162/1054746042545247.
56.
KennedyR. S.FowlkesJ. E.Simulator Sickness is Polygenic and polysymptomatic: Implications for Research. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, Vol. 2, No. 1, 1992, pp. 23–38. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327108ijap0201_2.
57.
NilssonL.Behavioural Research in an Advanced Driving Simulator - Experiences of the VTI System. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, Vol. 37, No. 9, 1993, pp. 612–616. https://doi.org/10.1177/154193129303700921.
58.
RoeC.BrownT.WatsonG.Factors Associated with Simulator Sickness in a High-Fidelity Simulator. Education, Vol. 251, 2007, p. 5A.
59.
BertinR.ColletC.EspiéS.GrafW.Objective Measurement of Simulator Sickness and the Role of Visual-Vestibular Conflict Situations. Proc., Driving Simulation Conference North America, Orlando, Fla., 2005.
60.
KennedyR. S.StanneyK. M.DunlapW. P.Duration and Exposure to Virtual Environments: Sickness Curves During and Across Sessions. Presence: Teleoperators & Virtual Environments, Vol. 9, No. 5, 2000, pp. 463–472.
61.
MackrousI.LavallièreM.TeasdaleN.Adaptation to Simulator Sickness in Older Drivers Following Multiple Sessions in a Driving Simulator. Gerontechnology, Vol. 12, No. 2, 2014, pp. 101–111.
62.
GarridoR.BastosA.de AlmeidaA.ElvasJ. P.Prediction of Road Accident Severity Using the Ordered Probit Model. Transportation Research Procedia, Vol. 3, 2014, pp. 214–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trpro.2014.10.107.
63.
LiuL.WatsonB.MiyazakiM.VR for the Elderly: Quantitative and Qualitative Differences in Performance with a Driving Simulator. CyberPsychology & Behavior, Vol. 2, No. 6, 1999, pp. 567–576.
64.
MinB. C.ChungS. C.MinY. K.SakamotoK.Psychophysiological Evaluation of Simulator Sickness Evoked by a Graphic Simulator. Applied Ergonomics, Vol. 35, No. 6, 2004, pp. 549–556. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apergo.2004.06.002.
65.
AghdashiB.ChavisC.KarmakarN.JeihaniM.BabichJ.Impact of Level of Service (LOS) on the Driver’s Behavior on Arterials. In University Transportation Centers Program, Department of Transportation, 2018.
66.
JeihaniM.MoghaddamZ. R.MoazzamiF.Quantifying Travel Time Reliability Perception and Developing Disaggregate Behavior Models under Information Provision Using Integrated Driving/Traffic Simulation. In Maryland State Highway Administration, 2016.
67.
ChavisC.JeihaniM.RakhaH.Quantifying the Impact of On-Street Parking Information on Congestion Mitigation. In Morgan State University, 1700.
68.
JeihaniM.ArdeshiriA.Exploring Travelers’ Behavior in Response To Dynamic Message Signs (DMS) Using a Driving Simulator. In National Transportation Center, Morgan State University, 2013.
69.
LaneN.KennedyR.A New Method for Quantifying Simulator Sickness: Development and Application of the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ). Essex Corporation, Orlando, Fla., 1988. 88–7
70.
KennedyR. S.LaneN. E.BerbaumK. S.LilienthalM. G.Simulator Sickness Questionnaire: An Enhanced Method for Quantifying Simulator Sickness. The International Journal of Aviation Psychology, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1993, pp. 203–220. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327108ijap0303_3.
71.
HarrisM. N.ZhaoX.A Zero-Inflated Ordered Probit Model, with an Application to Modelling Tobacco Consumption. Journal of Econometrics, Vol. 141, No. 2, 2007, pp. 1073–1099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jeconom.2007.01.002.
72.
LambertD.Zero-Inflated Poisson Regression, with an Application to Defects in Manufacturing. Technometrics, Vol. 34, No. 1, 1992, pp. 1–14. 10.1080/00401706.1992.10485228.
73.
GreeneW. H.HensherD. A.Modeling Ordered Choices: A Primer. Cambridge University Press, N.Y., 2010. https://doi.org/1139485954.
WashingtonS. P.KarlaftisM. G.ManneringF.Statistical and Econometric Methods for Transportation Data Analysis, 2nd ed.CRC Press, Taylor and Francis Group, Boca Raton, Fla., 2010. https://doi.org/9781420082869.
76.
BagozziB. E.HillD. W.JrMooreW. H.MukherjeeB.Modeling Two Types of Peace: the Zero-Inflated Ordered Probit (ZiOP) Model in Conflict Research. Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 59, No. 4, 2015, pp. 728–752.
77.
JiangX.HuangB.ZaretzkiR.L.RichardsS.YanX.ZhangH.Investigating the Influence of Curbs on Single-Vehicle Crash Injury Severity Utilizing Zero-Inflated Ordered Probit Models. Accident Analysis and Prevention, Vol. 57, 2013, pp. 55–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aap.2013.03.018.
78.
VuongQ. H.Likelihood Ratio Tests for Model Selection and Non-Nested Hypotheses. Econometrica, Vol. 57, No. 2, 1989, pp. 307–333. https://doi.org/10.2307/1912557.
79.
DongC.RichardsS. H.ClarkeD. B.ZhouX.MaZ.Examining Signalized Intersection Crash Frequency Using Multivariate Zero-Inflated Poisson Regression. Safety Science, Vol. 70, 2014, pp. 63–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2014.05.006.
80.
DennisonM. S.Motion Sickness in Virtual Environments. University Of California, Irvine, 2017.
